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Ghana ƒe ŋutinya

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Woda asi ɖe anyigba si woyɔna fifia be Ghana, si woyɔna tsã be Gold Coast la dzi le Europa kple Arabia be enye Ghana Fiaɖuƒe. Ŋkɔ sia tso eƒe dziɖula, amesi xɔ dzesideŋkɔ "Ghana" gbɔ. Le nyateƒe me la, blemafiaɖuƒe sia nɔ abe kilometa 800 ene tso egbegbe Ghana ƒe dzieheɣetoɖoƒe gome. Ekeke ɖe egbegbe Senegal, Mauritania, kple Mali ƒe akpa aɖewo, eye wòkpɔ ŋusẽ ɖe nuto siwo ƒo xlã Sénégal kple Niger Tɔsisiwo dzi.

Ghana Fiaɖuƒea dze gbagbã gɔme esi Almoravidtɔwo ƒe aʋafia aɖe si ŋkɔe nye Abu-Bakr Ibn-Umar ɖu edzi le ƒe 1076 me. Esi Almoravitɔwo ƒe dziɖuɖua wu enu gɔ̃ hã la, fiaɖuƒea ƒe akpa sue aɖe tsi agbe hena ɣeyiɣi aɖe. Gake mlɔeba la, eva zu fiaɖuƒe gã bubu siwo le Sahel nutoa me, abe Mali Fiaɖuƒea ene, ƒe akpa aɖe.

Le ɣeyiɣi ma ke me lɔƒo, le afisi woyɔna fifia be Ghana ƒe dziehe la, fiaɖuƒe yeye aɖe do si woyɔna be Dagbon. Fiaɖuƒe sia ƒo dukɔ sue geɖe siwo le wo ɖokui si siwo dzi kplɔla siwo woyɔna be "tindaamba" ɖu tsã la nu ƒu. Dagbon nye hehenaƒe vevi aɖe ŋutɔ le Ghana hafi Europatɔwo va ɖo. Du aɖe si wotsɔ ɖe adzɔgbe na nusɔsrɔ̃ gɔ̃ hã nɔ esi, si ɖi yunivɛsiti, eye wòto eya ŋutɔ ƒe nuŋɔŋlɔ ƒe ɖoɖo vɛ. Le ɣeyiɣi aɖe megbe la, fiaɖuƒe sue geɖe va do tso Dagbon, siwo dometɔ aɖewoe nye Mossi Fiaɖuƒe siwo le Burkina Faso kple Bouna Fiaɖuƒe si le Ivory Coast.

Ɣeyiɣi didi aɖee nye sia, le blemaɣeyiɣia ƒe nuwuwu lɔƒo la, fiaɖuƒe gãwo te ɖoɖo le Ɣetoɖoƒe Afrika. Esiawo dometɔ ɖekae nye Ghana Fiaɖuƒe, si nɔ dukɔ si míeyɔna fifia be Ghana ƒe dziehe gome.

Hafi Ghana Fiaɖuƒea namu le ƒe alafa 10 lia ƒe gɔmedzedze la, Akantɔwo ʋu yi dzigbe. Wowɔ dukɔ sue geɖe, siwo woɖo ɖe woƒe ƒomewo ƒe ƒuƒoƒowo ŋu. Bono-dukɔae nye esiawo dometɔ gbãtɔ, si woɖo le ƒe alafa 11 lia me. Wotsɔ ŋkɔ na Brong-Ahafo (si nye Bono Ahafo fifia) nutoa. Mole-Dagbontɔwo hã tso Chad-ta me va Ghana egbea eye woɖo fiaɖuƒe gbãtɔ siwo woɖo ɖe ɖoɖo nu la dometɔ aɖewo ɖe afima. Emegbe la, ɖewohĩ Akantɔwo ƒe ƒuƒoƒo bubuwo abe Ashantitɔwo, Akwamutɔwo, Akyemtɔwo, kple Fantetɔwo ene dzɔ tso Bonotɔwo ƒe nɔƒe gbãtɔ le Bono Manso. Ashanti-fiaɖuƒea dze egɔme abe dukɔwo ƒe ƒuƒoƒo si mebɔbɔ o ene gake etsi va zu fiaɖuƒe sesẽ aɖe si le titina, si me dziɖuɖu si ŋu ɖoɖo le nyuie, si le eƒe fiadu Kumasi me.

Kaka ƒe alafa 16 lia nawu enu la, to vovovo siwo ƒo ƒu wɔ egbegbe Ghana la ƒe akpa gãtɔ va nɔ nuto siwo me wole egbea me. Kpeɖodzi siwo tso blematomenukulawo me ɖee fia be amewo nɔ ƒuta vaseɖe keke Akɔbliɣeyiɣia me ke (anɔ abe ƒe 2000 D.M.Ŋ.), tɔƒodede koŋ, gake womegblẽ dzesi ʋɛ aɖewo ɖi o. Nusiwo ŋu blematomenukulawo ke ɖo hã ɖee fia be amewo nɔ titina Ghana, si le avea ƒe dziehe gome, ƒe 3,000 va ɖo 4,000 enye sia.[1]

Amewo ƒe ʋuʋu siawo ƒe akpa aɖe tso dukɔ gã geɖe ƒe dzidziɖedzi kple anyidzedze le Sudan ƒe ɣetoɖoƒe gome, si nye nuto si le egbegbe Ghana ƒe dziehe gome ƒo xlã Niger Tɔsisi la gbɔ. Dzesideŋkɔ "Ghana" fia fia la ŋutɔŋutɔ, gake Arab agbalẽŋlɔlawo, siwo léa fiaɖuƒea ŋuti nuŋlɔɖiwo ɖe asi la, zã nya sia na fia la, fiadu la, kple dukɔ bliboa. Ƒe alafa 9 lia me ŋutinyaŋlɔla aɖe si ŋkɔe nye Al Yaqubi ŋlɔ bena blema Ghana nye dukɔ etɔ siwo ŋu ɖoɖo le wu le nuto ma me la dometɔ ɖeka.[2]

Eƒe dziɖulawo xɔ ŋkɔ le woƒe sikakesinɔnu gbogboawo, woƒe fiasã dzeaniwo, kple woƒe aɖaŋu abe aʋawɔlawo kple adelawo ene ta. Wonye sikasitsatsa hã ŋuti nunyalawo, si hea asitsala siwo tso Dziehe Afrika va Sudan ƒe ɣetoɖoƒekpa dzi. Dziɖula siawo ƒe asrafowo ƒe dzidzedzekpɔkpɔ, tsɔ kpe ɖe woƒe ŋusẽkpɔkpɔ ɖe nutoa me sikakuƒewo dzi ŋu, nye nu vevi siwo na ƒomedodo nɔ wo kple asitsala kple dziɖula siwo le Dziehe Afrika kple Mediterranea-ƒua dzi.[3]

Mlɔeba la, eƒe aƒelikawo va ɖu Ghana dzi le ƒe alafa 11 lia me, gake eƒe ŋkɔ kple ŋkɔxɔxɔ gakpɔtɔ nɔ anyi. Togbɔ be dukɔ siwo le ɣetoɖoƒe Sudan dometɔ aɖeke mekpɔ ŋusẽ ɖe nuto siwo le nuto si nye egbegbe Ghana fifia dzi tẽ o hã la, ame ŋkuta siwo woxɔ se be wotso nuto ma me ɖu fiaɖuƒe geɖe siwo va emegbe, abe Bonoman ene, dzi. Asitsatsa le Sahara-dukɔwo dzi, si kpe ɖe Sudan-fiaɖuƒe siwo le ɣetoɖoƒe gome ŋu wodzi ɖe edzi hã na kadodo va nɔ wo kple egbegbe Ghana ƒe dziehekpawo kple avetsu siwo le dzigbe gome dome.[4][5]

Asitsatsa ƒe dzidziɖedzi de dzi ƒo na Akan-dukɔ gbãtɔ siwo le asitsamɔ siwo yi sikakuƒe siwo le dzigbe avea me la to. Amewo mesɔ gbɔ ɖe avea ŋutɔ me o, gake Akangbedolawo te ʋuʋu yi eme le ƒe alafa 15 lia ƒe nuwuwu lɔƒo esime nuku yeye siwo tso Anyieheɣedzeƒe Asia kple Xexeme Yeyea, abe sorghum, akɔɖu, kple cassava ene, va ɖo eye wote ŋu tsi le ave ƒe nɔnɔmewo me. Kaka ƒe alafa 16 lia ƒe gɔmedzedze naɖo la, Europatɔwo ƒe nuŋlɔɖiwo de dzesii be sikadukɔ siwo me kesinɔnuwo le abe Akan kple Twifu ene nɔ Ofin Tɔsisi ƒe Bali me.[6]

Wobua Mole-Dagbon Fiaɖuƒewo be wonye dunyahedukɔ gbãtɔ siwo woɖo ɖe ɖoɖo nu le nuto si nye egbegbe Ghana fifia me. Ame aɖe si ŋkɔe nye Naa Gbewaa ye ɖo fiaɖuƒe siawo, eye tso eƒe domenyinu me la, fiaɖuƒe bubu geɖewo abe Dagbon, Mamprusi, kple Nanumba ene do. Àte ŋu akpɔ fiaɖuƒe siawo siwo kaka ɖe nuto vovovowo me le egbegbe Ghana, siwo dometɔ aɖewoe nye Dzigbeɣedzeƒe, Dzigbeɣetoɖoƒe, Dzieheɣedzeƒe, kple Dziehe nutowo. Dagbon Fiaɖuƒea tsi tre ɖe kluvinyenye kple dutanyigbadziɖuɖu siaa ŋu vevie. Wolɔ̃a adzɔnuwo ƒe asitsatsa tsɔ wu amewo. Le asitsatsa kple fiaɖuƒe siwo te ɖe wo ŋu ƒe susu alea ta, vevietɔ le Yaa Naa Zangina ƒe dziɖuɖu te la, Islam kpɔ ŋusẽ gã aɖe ɖe fiaɖuƒea dzi. Gake Europatɔwo kple dutanyigbadziɖuɖuwo ƒe ŋusẽkpɔɖeamedziwo ɖe dzesi wu le Ghana ƒe dzigbe kple titina.

Le ŋutinya xoxowo kple blematomenukulawo nu la, Dagomba-dukɔwoe nye fiaɖuƒe gbãtɔ siwo do le egbegbe Ghana vavã, le keke ƒe alafa 11 lia me ke, eye woɖo wo anyi nyuie le ƒe alafa 16 lia ƒe nuwuwu. Togbɔ be zi geɖe la, Dagomba dziɖulawo ŋutɔ menye Moslemtɔwo o hã la, wokplɔa Moslemtɔ siwo nye agbalẽŋlɔlawo kple gbedalawo vɛ alo xɔa wo nyuie. Woƒe anyinɔnɔ kpe ɖe Islam ƒe ŋusẽkpɔɖeamedzi kaka ŋu le dziehe, vevietɔ to asitsalawo kple subɔsubɔhakplɔlawo ƒe dɔwɔwɔ me.[7][8] Le nuto si me ʋuʋudedi le si le Dagomba nuto si dzi Moslemtɔwo kpɔ ŋusẽ ɖo ƒe dziehe liƒowo kple Mossi Fiaɖuƒewo ƒe dzigbe gome dome (le egbegbe Ghana ƒe dziehe kple Burkina Faso ƒe dzigbe gome) la, ame aɖewo nɔ anyi siwo menye Dagomba ƒuƒoƒoa me tɔ o. Amesiawo dometɔ aɖewoe nye Kassena agbledelawo. Wonɔ nusi woyɔna be "habɔbɔ si woma ɖe akpa vovovowo me," si fia be ƒomekadodowo lé woƒe nutoawo ɖe te eye woƒe to me amegãwoe nɔ ŋgɔ na wo. Asitsatsa le Akan fiaɖuƒe siwo le dzigbe kple Mossi fiaɖuƒe siwo le dziehe dome la to Kassena denyigba dzi. Esia na Islamtɔwo ƒe nukpɔsusuwo va dze wo dzi eye wòna woate ŋu adze wo dzi bɔbɔe tso ƒuƒoƒo siwo ŋu ŋusẽ le wu gbɔ hã.[9]

Bono Dukɔ (si wogayɔna be Bonoman) nye asitsadukɔ si Bonotɔwo ɖo le afisi woyɔna fifia be Ghana ƒe dzigbe. Wonye Akantɔwo ƒe ƒuƒoƒo si doa Twigbe, eye woɖo woƒe dukɔa anyi le ƒe alafa 11 lia lɔƒo. Bonoman nye titinaɣeyiɣiwo me Akan-fiaɖuƒe vevi aɖe si nɔ Ghana ƒe egbegbe Bono, Bono Ɣedzeƒe, kple Ahafo nutowo me, kpakple Ivory Coast ƒe ɣedzeƒekpa dzi ƒe akpa aɖewo—wotsɔ Bono kple Ahafo ŋkɔ na nuto siawo. Woxɔe se le afisiafi be Bono Dukɔa mee Akantɔwo ƒe ƒuƒoƒo vovovowo dzɔ tso hafi woʋu le ɣeyiɣi vovovowo me va ɖo Akan dukɔ yeyewo, vevietɔ wodi sika. Sikasitsatsa, si dze ŋgɔ ŋutɔŋutɔ le Bonoman le ƒe alafa 12 lia me ke lae nye Akantɔwo ƒe ŋusẽ kple kesinɔnuwo ƒe gɔmedzedze le nutoa me le Titinaɣeyiɣiwo me. Akantɔwo ƒe dekɔnuwo ƒe akpa geɖe, abe kɔnuwɔwɔ ƒe akɔtakpoxɔnu siwo fiawo zãna, dukɔa ƒe yiwo, fiazikpui alo fiazikpuiwo, aɖaŋu si wotsɔ wɔa sika kple gayibɔ, Kentetɔwo ƒe avɔlɔ̃, kple sika dada ene, katã tso Bono Dukɔa me.

Le Amegã Oti Akenten (amesi ɖu dzi tso ƒe 1630–1660 lɔƒo) ƒe kpɔkplɔ te la, Ashantitɔwo wɔ asrafowo dzidzedzetɔe ɖe Akan-dukɔ siwo te ɖe wo ŋu ŋu, si na nuto si lolo wu si ƒo xlã wo va wɔ ɖeka kpli wo. Le ƒe alafa 17 lia ƒe nuwuwu la, Osei Tutu va zu Asantehene (Ashanti-fia). Le Osei Tutu ƒe kpɔkplɔ te la, wotrɔ Ashanti-dukɔwo ƒe nuƒoƒoƒu wòzu fiaɖuƒe sẽŋu aɖe si ƒe fiadu le Kumasi. Esia na dunyahehe kple asrafohawo ƒe ɖekawɔwɔ sẽŋu va, eye woɖo dziɖuɖu sesẽ aɖe si le teƒe ɖeka.[10][11]

Nunɔlagã, Anokye, kpɔ ŋusẽ gã aɖe ɖe Osei Tutu dzi. Kɔnyinyi gblɔ be Anokye na sikafɔti aɖe ɖi tso dziƒo be wòanye Ashanti-dukɔwo ƒe ɖekawɔwɔ ƒe kpɔɖeŋu. Aɖuɖɔtoewo nye kplɔlanyenye ƒe dzesi siwo wozãna tso blema ke xoxo, gake Sika Afɔdzideƒea tsi tre ɖi na dukɔ siwo katã wɔ ɖeka kplii ƒe gbɔgbɔ ɖekae. Ehe nuteƒewɔwɔ eve vɛ: amewo wɔ nuteƒe na dukɔwo ƒe habɔbɔ gãtɔ kpakple woƒe dukɔ ɖekaɖekawo hã. Sika Afɔdzideƒea gakpɔtɔ nye dukɔa ƒe dzesi si ŋu wodea bubui ŋutɔ le woƒe ŋutinya me ɣeyiɣi siwo va yi me eye wònye Ashantitɔwo ƒe kɔnu vevi aɖe ŋutɔ.[12][13]

Osei Tutu ɖe mɔ na nuto siwo dzi woɖu yeyee siwo va kpe ɖe dukɔwo dome habɔbɔa ŋu be woalé woawo ŋutɔ ƒe dekɔnuwo kple amegãwo me ɖe asi, eye wona ɖoƒe amegã siawo le Ashanti dukɔa ƒe aɖaŋuɖotakpekpea me. Tutu ƒe mɔnu na dɔa nɔ bɔbɔe vie eye wònɔ bɔbɔe elabena eƒe aʋadziɖuɖu siwo wòɖu do ŋgɔ ƒe akpa gãtɔ lɔ Akan dukɔ bubuwo ɖe eme. Le Ashantitɔwo ƒe akpa siwo le nubabla la me la, dukɔ sue ɖesiaɖe yi edzi nɔ eɖokui dzi ɖum le ememe, eye eƒe amegã kpɔ dukɔa ƒe gomenɔamesiwo ta vevie be dziɖuɖumegãwo nagade nu eme o. Gake ɖekawɔwɔ ƒe seselelãme sẽŋu aɖe va do mo ɖa esi nuto vovovoawo tsɔ woƒe ame ɖekaɖekawo ƒe didiwo ɖo nɔƒe evelia le dziɖuɖumegãwo teƒe le dukɔa ƒe nyawo gome.[14][15]

Kaka ƒe alafa 18 lia ƒe domedome naɖo la, Ashanti nye dukɔ si ŋu ɖoɖo le ŋutɔ. Woɖu aʋa siwo na dziehedukɔ siwo nye Dagomba, Mamprusi, kple Gonja va nɔ Ashanti ƒe ŋusẽkpɔɖeamedzi te la dzi le Opoku Ware I (si ku le ƒe 1750 me), si va xɔ ɖe Osei Tutu ƒe ŋkɔ. Kaka ƒe 1820-awo naɖo la, dziɖula siwo kplɔ wo nɔewo ɖo keke Ashanti ƒe liƒowo ɖe enu yi dzigbe gome. Togbɔ be kekeɖenudɔ siwo wowɔ yi dziehe gome la do ƒome kple Ashanti kple asitsamɔ siwo to dzogbea dzi yi Hausaland le ɣedzeƒe gome hã la, ʋuʋu yi dzigbe na Ashantitɔwo do go ƒuta Fantetɔwo, eye ɣeaɖewoɣi wotsi tre ɖe wo nɔewo ŋu, kpakple Europatɔ asitsala vovovo siwo ƒe mɔ̃ sesẽwo le Sikaƒuta hã.[16][17]

Europatɔwo ƒe Kadodo Gbãtɔ Kple Kluviwo ƒe Asitsatsa

[trɔ asi le eŋu | trɔ asi le etsoƒe ŋu]

Esi Europatɔ gbãtɔ siwo xɔ anyigbaa va ɖo le ƒe alafa 15 lia ƒe nuwuwu la, vovo menɔ ame geɖe siwo nɔ Gold Coast nutoa me ŋu henɔ agbagba dzem be yewoakpɔ yewoƒe anyigba yeye siwo woxɔ la ta ahanɔ teƒe si li ke, si anɔ anyi ɖaa. Le gɔmedzedzea me la, Gold Coast mekpɔ gome le kluviwo ɖoɖo ɖe duta me o. Ke boŋ abe alesi Ivor Wilks, si nye Ghana ŋutinyaŋlɔla xɔŋkɔ aɖe de dzesii ene la, le nyateƒe me la, Akantɔwo ƒlea kluviwo tso Portugaltɔ asitsala siwo wɔa dɔ tso Afrika ƒe akpa bubuwo abe Congo kple Benin ene gbɔ. Wowɔ esia be yewoakpɔ dɔwɔla geɖe wu na dziɖuɖu tutuɖo ƒe agbagbadzedze siwo nɔ edzi yim le ɣeyiɣi ma me.[18]

Portugaltɔwo ɖo nuto si woava yɔ be Sikaƒuta le ƒe 1471. Wotsɔ ŋkɔ sia nɛ elabena sikatsoƒe ɖedzesi aɖee wònye. Portugaltɔwo tsɔ ɖe le sika, nyiɖu, kple atadi ƒe asitsatsa me ale gbegbe be le ƒe 1482 me la, wotu woƒe asitsaƒe gbãtɔ si nɔa anyi ɖaa ɖe egbegbe Ghana ƒe ɣetoɖoƒeƒuta. Wotu mɔ̃ sesẽ sia si woyɔ be São Jorge da Mina (si wova yɔ emegbe be Elmina Mɔ̃ sesẽ) be woatsɔ akpɔ Portugaltɔwo ƒe asitsatsa ta tso Europa hoʋlila bubuwo si me. Le gbugbɔgatu kple tɔtrɔ geɖe megbe la, egakpɔtɔ li egbea.[19]

Portugaltɔwo lé woƒe nɔƒe sesẽa me ɖe asi le Gold Coast ƒe alafa ɖeka kple edzivɔ. Le ɣeyiɣi ma me la, Portugal dziɖuɖua dze agbagba be yeakpɔ ŋusẽ ɖe asitsatsa katã dzi le nutoa me to amegã siwo woɖo le São Jorge dzi, eye wòzã ŋusẽ gɔ̃ hã tsɔ tɔ te Eŋlisiawo, Franseawo, kple Flemishtɔwo ƒe agbagbadzedze be yewoawɔ asitsatsa le ƒuta. Kaka ƒe 1598 naɖo la, Hollandtɔwo dze asitsatsa gɔme le Gold Coast. Hollandtɔwo tu mɔ̃ sesẽwo le Komenda kple Kormantsi le ƒe 1612. Le ƒe 1637 me la, woxɔ Elmina Mɔ̃ sesẽ le Portugaltɔwo si, kple Axim le ƒe 1642 me (Fort St Anthony). Europatɔ asitsala bubuwo hã va kpe ɖe eŋu le ƒe alafa 17 lia ƒe domedome, eye wo dometɔ akpa gãtɔ nye Eŋlisiawo, Denmarktɔwo, kple Swedentɔwo. Mɔ̃ sesẽ kple mɔ̃ sesẽ siwo wu 30 siwo Netherlands, Britain, kple Denmark asitsala siwo tu, vevietɔ be woatsɔ akpɔ woƒe didiwo ta tso Europatɔ bubuwo kple ƒudzidzodalawo si me la va yɔ ƒuta. Gold Coast va wu enu be Europatɔwo ƒe asrafowo ƒe xɔtuɖaŋuwo sɔ gbɔ wu le Europa godo. Ɣeaɖewoɣi la, Europatɔ siawo hã ƒoa wo ɖokui ɖe dzrehehewo me kple nutoa me tɔwo esime wonɔ asitsahabɔbɔwo wɔm kple nutoa me dunyahehakplɔlawo. Zi geɖe la, nubabla siawo sesẽna, eye Europatɔwo dzea agbagba be yewoaƒoe ɖe yewoƒe hadɔwɔla kplikplikpliwo nu be woadze Europa melidzeƒe siwo le ho ʋlim kpli wo kple Afrika-dukɔ siwo wɔ ɖeka kpli wo dzi, alo le go bubu me la, Afrika-dukɔ vovovowo dzea agbagba be yewoaxɔ Europatɔwo abe asrafowo ene le yewoƒe aʋawɔwɔ siwo wowɔna le dukɔwo dome me, alo abe dutadɔnunɔlawo ene atsɔ akpɔ masɔmasɔwo gbɔ.[20]

Wotu mɔ̃ sesẽwo, gblẽ wo ɖi ƒuƒlu, wodze wo dzi, lé wo, wodzra wo, eye wodzra wo, eye Europa dukɔ siwo le ho ʋlim la tia teƒe geɖe le ɣeyiɣi vovovowo me hena nɔƒe sesẽwo.

Netherlandstɔwo ƒe Ɣetoɖoƒe India Dɔwɔƒea wɔ dɔ le ƒe alafa 18 lia ƒe akpa gãtɔ me. Britaintɔwo ƒe Afrika Asitsalawo ƒe Habɔbɔ si woɖo le ƒe 1750 me la xɔ dɔa le habɔbɔ sia ƒomevi geɖe siwo nɔ anyi do ŋgɔ la si. Dɔwɔƒe siawo tu dɔwɔƒe yeyewo hede dɔwɔlawo wo dzi esime wonɔ woƒe asitsatsadɔwo wɔm eye wole woƒe nuto siwo dzi wokpɔ ŋusẽ ɖo ta ʋlim kple dziɖuɖu ƒe kpekpeɖeŋu vovovowo. Swedentɔwo kple Prussiatɔwo hã nɔ anyi ɣeyiɣi kpui aɖe ƒe dɔwɔnawo. Dukɔ siawo wɔ ɖeka vovovowo kple dutanyigbadziɖuɖuwo kpakple wo nɔewo, si na wowɔ Ashanti-Fante-ʋa le ƒe 1806 me, eye Ashanti Fiaɖuƒea hã nɔ avu wɔm kple Britaintɔwo si yi edzi, si me Anglo-Ashanti-ʋa eneawo hã nɔ. Denmarktɔwo nɔ afima vaseɖe ƒe 1850 me, esime wodzo le Gold Coast. Britaintɔwo va kpɔ ŋusẽ ɖe Netherlandstɔwo ƒe ƒutamɔ̃ sesẽwo katã dzi le ƒe alafa 19 lia ƒe akpa enelia mamlɛa me, si wɔe be wova zu Europa-dukɔ si xɔ aƒe ɖe Sikaƒuta.[21]

Le ƒe alafa 17 lia ƒe nuwuwu la, tɔtrɔ siwo va Gold Coast dunyahehe me na tɔtrɔwo va le alesi wowɔa aʋawɔwɔe me eye wòtrɔ ganyawo tso esi tsɔa sika yia duta eye wòtsɔa kluviwo tso duta va zu esi va zu kluviwo dzrala vevitɔ le nutoa me.

Ŋutinyaŋlɔla aɖewo melɔ̃ ɖe edzi be ɖeko dziɖula siwo le Gold Coast wɔ aʋa be yewoana woadzra kluviwo le duta o. Le kpɔɖeŋu me, Ashantitɔwo koŋ yia aʋa dzi be yewoagbugbɔ aglãdzenutowo ade yewoƒe ŋusẽ te, be yewoana fiaɖuƒe suewo naxe adzɔ na yewo, eye yewoana yewoƒe asitsamɔwo nanɔ ʋuʋu ɖi, vevietɔ esiwo tsɔa nuto siwo le anyigba me la doa ka kple ƒuta.[22]

Afrikatɔwo ŋutɔe kpɔa kluviwo nana Gold Coast dzi bliboe. Dziɖula akpa gãtɔ, abe Akan-dukɔ vovovowo ƒe fiawo ene, kple nutoa me asitsala ɖekaɖekawo kpɔ gome le kluvisitsatsa me. Anɔ eme be kluvisitsatsa kpɔ ŋusẽ gbegblẽ ɖe Ɣetoɖoƒe Afrikatɔwo dzi wu amesiwo wowɔ kluviwo ƒe xexlẽme ko. Afrikatɔ geɖe ku le aʋawɔwɔwo, adzodalawo ƒe amedzidzedze, alo esime wolé wo aboyoe henɔ lalam be woaɖo yewo ɖe tɔdziʋu me. Europa-dukɔ siwo katã tsɔ ɖe le Ɣetoɖoƒe Afrika la kpɔ gome le kluvisitsatsa me. Europatɔwo kple nutoa me tɔwo dome ƒomedodo me mekɔna zi geɖe o, eye kakaɖeamedzi ƒe anyimanɔmanɔ na dzrehehewo doa mo ɖa enuenu. Dɔlélewo na Europatɔ siwo kpɔ gome le kluvisitsatsa me la dometɔ geɖe ku, gake viɖe gbogbo siwo wokpɔna na wogatrɔna vaa wo gbɔ.[23]

Nukpɔsusu si nye be woaɖe kluvinyenye ɖa le Europatɔwo dome la va xɔ aƒe ɖe eme vivivi. Togbɔ be sɔlemehakplɔla aɖewo ƒo nu tsi tre ɖe kluvisitsatsa ŋu le keke ƒe alafa 17 lia me ke hã la, Kristo-ha gãwo mewɔ nu boo aɖeke tsɔ do alɔ agbagba gbãtɔ siwo wodze be woaɖe asi le eŋu o. Le ƒe 1807 me la, Britain zã eƒe ƒudzisrafowo kple dutadɔnunɔlawo ƒe ŋusẽkpɔɖeamedzi sesẽ tsɔ de se ɖe kluvisitsatsa nu na eƒe dumeviwo eye wòdze aʋawɔwɔ gɔme be yeatɔ te dukɔwo dome kluvisitsatsa. Britaintɔwo ƒe asiɖeɖe le wo ŋu sia kpe ɖe kluvisitsatsa le egodo ŋu dzi ɖe kpɔtɔ. Wode se ɖe kluviwo tsɔtsɔ va United States nu le ƒe 1808. Gake agbagbadzedze siawo mekpɔ dzidzedze bliboe o vaseɖe ƒe 1860-awo me elabena agbledelawo gakpɔtɔ di vevie le Xexeme Yeyea me.[24]

Esi wònye be exɔ ƒe bla nanewo hafi kluvisitsatsa nu tso ta la, ŋutinyaŋlɔla aɖewo kea ɖi nenye be didi be yewoakpe ɖe amewo ŋue nye nusi koŋ gbɔ kluvisitsrɔ̃ ƒe habɔbɔa tso. Le kpɔɖeŋu me, ŋutinyaŋlɔla Eric Williams ʋli nya be ɖeko Europa ɖe kluvisitsatsa le Atlantik-ƒua dzi ɖa le esi viɖe meganɔ eŋu o le Dɔwɔƒewo ƒe Tɔtrɔ Kpata ta. Gake agbalẽnyala bubuwo melɔ̃ ɖe Williams ƒe nya dzi o, eye wogblɔ be amegbetɔ ƒe kpekpeɖeŋunana kple hadome kple ganyawo siaa wɔ akpa vevi aɖe le Afrikatɔwo ƒe kluvisitsatsa nutsitsi me.

British Gold Coast (Britaintɔwo ƒe Sikaƒuta)

[trɔ asi le eŋu | trɔ asi le etsoƒe ŋu]

Kaka ƒe alafa 19 lia nawu enu la, Netherlandstɔwo kple Britaintɔwo koe nye Europatɔ asitsala siwo susɔ ɖe Gold Coast. Esi Hollandtɔwo dzo le ƒe 1874 me la, Britain trɔ Gold Coast wòzu ametakpɔƒe, si wɔe be wòzu Britaintɔwo ƒe Fiaɖuƒe. Susu vevi eve siwo tae Britaintɔwo ɖu dzi eye wova ɖo nuto aɖe ɖe Gold Coast mlɔeba: alesi Britain wɔ nui ɖe Ashantitɔwo ƒe aʋawɔwɔ siwo he malikenyenye vɛ eye wògblẽ asitsatsa me, kple alesi Britain ƒe susu nɔ kluvisitsatsa nutsitsi ŋu geɖe wu.[25]

Le ƒe alafa 19 lia ƒe akpa gãtɔ me la, Ashantitɔwo, si nye dukɔ si ŋu ŋusẽ le wu le Akantɔwo ƒe anyigbamama me, dze agbagba be yewoakeke yewoƒe dziɖuɖu ɖe enu ahakpɔ yewoƒe asitsatsa ta. Ashantitɔwo dze ƒuta nutoawo dzi zi gbãtɔ le ƒe 1807 me, eye emegbe wogadze ƒuta nutowo dzi ake le ƒe 1811 kple 1814. Togbɔ be amedzidzedze siawo metso nya me o hã la, wogblẽ asitsatsa me eye wodo Europa-mɔ̃ sesẽwo ƒe dedienɔnɔ afɔku me. Wozi Britain, Netherlands, kple Denmark dziɖuɖumegã siwo le nutoa me dzi be woawɔ ɖoɖo kple Ashantitɔwo. Le ƒe 1817 me la, Afrika Asitsalawo ƒe Habɔbɔ de asi xɔlɔ̃wɔwɔ ƒe nubabla aɖe te si da asi ɖe Ashantitɔwo ƒe nya be yewokpɔ ŋusẽ ɖe ƒuta kple eƒe amewo ƒe akpa gãwo dzi dzi.[26]

Ƒutatɔwo, vevietɔ Fantetɔ aɖewo kple du yeye si nye Accra me nɔlawo, te ŋuɖoɖo ɖe Britaintɔwo ƒe ametakpɔkpɔ ŋu tso Ashantitɔwo ƒe amedzidzedzewo me. Gake asitsahabɔbɔwo ƒe ŋutete be woana dedienɔnɔ sia mebɔ o. Britain Fiaɖuƒea ɖe dɔwɔƒea ɖa le ƒe 1821 me, eye wòna Britaintɔwo ƒe mɔ̃ sesẽ siwo le Gold Coast dzi kpɔkpɔ na Charles MacCarthy, si nye Sierra Leone ƒe nutodziɖula. Britaintɔwo ƒe mɔ̃ sesẽwo kple Sierra Leone gakpɔtɔ nɔ dziɖuɖu ɖeka te le ƒe alafa la ƒe afã gbãtɔ me. MacCarthy ƒe taɖodzinue nye be yeahe ŋutifafa vɛ eye yeatsi kluvisitsatsa nu. Edze agbagba be yeawɔ esia to dzidedeƒo na ƒutadukɔwo be woatsi tre ɖe Ashantitɔwo ƒe dziɖuɖu ŋu kple mɔ gã siwo yi ƒuta la xexe me. Gake nudzɔdzɔwo kple dzrewɔwɔ ɣeaɖewoɣi yi edzi. Le ƒe 1823 me la, Anglo-Ashanti-ʋa Gbãtɔ dzɔ eye wòyi edzi vaseɖe ƒe 1831. Wowu MacCarthy, eye wotsrɔ̃ eƒe asrafoha akpa gãtɔ le aʋa si wowɔ kple Ashanti-srafowo le ƒe 1824 me.[27]

Esi Eŋlisiawo ƒe dziɖuɖua ɖe mɔ be woatrɔ asi le Gold Coast ƒe nɔƒewo dzi ɖuɖu ŋu na Britaintɔwo ƒe Afrika Asitsalawo ƒe Dɔwɔƒe le ƒe 1820 ƒeawo ƒe nuwuwu la, ƒomedodo kple Ashantitɔwo gakpɔtɔ nɔ sesẽm. Le Ashantitɔwo ƒe nukpɔsusu nu la, Britaintɔwo mete ŋu ɖu woƒe ƒutahabɔbɔ siwo le nutoa me ƒe nuwɔnawo dzi o. MacCarthy ƒe dzidedeƒo na ƒuta tsitretsitsi ɖe Ashantitɔwo ŋu kple Britaintɔwo ƒe asrafowo ƒe amedzidzedze si kplɔe ɖo le ƒe 1824 me gaɖee fia Ashanti dziɖuɖumegãwo be Europatɔwo, vevietɔ Britaintɔwo, medea bubu wo ŋu o.[28]

Protestanttɔwo ƒe Dutanyanyuigblɔlawo

[trɔ asi le eŋu | trɔ asi le etsoƒe ŋu]

Dutanyanyuigblɔlawo ƒe habɔbɔ sesẽ aɖe nɔ Protestant dukɔ siwo le Ɣetoɖoƒe Europa, siwo dome Britain hã le, le ƒe alafa 19 lia me. Wose le wo ɖokui me be enye yewoƒe dɔ be yewoawɔ "dekɔnu" amesiwo wobu be wonye kluviwo nuvɔ̃wɔlawo, kple "lãmelãwo." Tsɔ kpe ɖe asitsatsa ƒe mɔnukpɔkpɔwo kple dukɔa ƒe ŋutikɔkɔe yometiti ŋu la, mawusubɔsubɔdɔ sia nye ŋusẽ sẽŋu aɖe si ʋã fiaɖuƒedziɖuɖu. Ɣetoɖoƒe Afrika katã kloe nye habɔbɔ siwo me kluvinyenye bɔ ɖo, eye aʋawɔwɔ be woalé kluvi yeyewo—ɖewohĩ be woadzra wo na kluvisitsala mɔzɔlawo—nye woƒe ganyawo, hadomegbenɔnɔ, kple dunyahehe ƒe akpa si woɖo anyi. Dutanyanyuigblɔlawo ƒe susu nɔ kluvisitsatsa ŋu gbã, gake wote tɔ ɖe edzi be kluvisitsatsa kple kluvinyenye si wowɔna le kɔnu nu siaa mesɔ le agbenyuinɔnɔ gome o. Wowɔ ɖoɖo be yewoaɖe asitsatsa la ɖa. Fiaɖuƒea ƒe Ƒudzisrafowo tɔ ŋku kluvimeli siwo to atsiaƒu dzi, eye asitsatsa la nu yi vivivi.

Gake kluvinyenye ɖeɖeɖa mena ɖeviwo ƒe dɔ sesẽ wɔwɔ wu enu o. Dutanyanyuigblɔla gbãtɔ siwo va Ghana do ŋgɔ na dutanyigbadziɖuɖua nye Europatɔwo, Afrikatɔwo, kple Caribbeantɔwo ƒe ƒuƒoƒo vovovo siwo nɔ Switzerland ƒe Basel Dutanyanyuigbɔgblɔdɔa me. Ga sue aɖe koe nɔ Basel Dɔdasi la si eye woɖoa ŋu ɖe ɖeviwo ƒe dɔwɔwɔ ŋu hena dɔ geɖe siwo wowɔna edziedzi. Ðevi siawo nye sukuvi siwo le mawunyadɔgbedesukuwo me siwo ma woƒe ɣeyiɣi ɖe sukudede bliboa, mawusubɔsubɔ ŋuti nusɔsrɔ̃, kple dɔ si womexea fe na o dome. Basel Dɔdzikpɔha tsɔe ɖo nɔƒe gbãtɔ be yewoana ɖeviwo ƒe dɔwɔwɔ ƒe nɔnɔme sesẽ siwo kluvinyenye dea ame dzi kple fe si wo dzilawo nyi la nanyo ɖe edzi.[29]

Britaintɔwo ƒe Dziɖuɖu le Gold Coast: Dutanyigbadziɖuɖu ƒe Ɣeyiɣia

[trɔ asi le eŋu | trɔ asi le etsoƒe ŋu]

Le ƒe 1830 me la, asitsalawo ƒe kɔmiti aɖe si le London tia Kapitan George Maclean be wòaxɔ ŋgɔ na asitsalawo ƒe aɖaŋuɖoha aɖe si le nutoa me. Togbɔ be ŋusẽ si le esi le dziɖuɖumegãwo me mede naneke o hã la, Maclean te ŋu wɔ nu geɖe. Le kpɔɖeŋu me, ewɔ ɖoɖo ɖe ŋutifafanubabla aɖe ŋu kple Ashantitɔwo le ƒe 1831. Maclean kpɔ ƒutatɔwo hã dzi to ʋɔnudrɔ̃ƒe wɔwɔ edziedzi le Cape Coast, afisi wòhea to na amesiwo wobu fɔe be wogblẽ ŋutifafa me. Le ƒe 1830 kple 1843 dome, esime Maclean nɔ nyawo dzi kpɔm le Gold Coast la, masɔmasɔ aɖeke menɔ wo kple Ashantitɔwo dome o, eye wogblɔ be asitsatsa ƒe agbɔsɔsɔ dzi ɖe edzi zi gbɔ zi etɔ̃.[30]

Maclean ƒe ʋɔnudrɔ̃ƒe ƒe ŋusẽ si seɖoƒe li na le ƒuta la wɔ dɔ ale gbegbe be sewɔtakpekpea ƒe kɔmiti aɖe kafui be Britain dziɖuɖua nakpɔ eƒe nɔƒewo dzi tegbee eye wòawɔ nubablawo kple ƒutamegãwo atsɔ aɖe ƒomedodo si le Britain kple wo dome la me. Dziɖuɖua wɔ esia le ƒe 1843 me, ƒe ma ke me wogbugbɔ dziɖuɖu si tso Fiaɖuƒea gbɔ tẽ vɛ. Woɖo Aʋafia H. Worsley Hill Gold Coast ƒe nutodziɖula gbãtɔ. Le Maclean ƒe kpɔkplɔ te la, ƒutato geɖe lɔ̃ faa lɔ̃ ɖe Britaintɔwo ƒe ametakpɔkpɔ dzi. Emegbe Hill ʋu be yeaɖe nɔnɔme kple agbanɔamedzi siwo le yeƒe ŋusẽ si le nuto siawo siwo wokpɔ ta na dzi la me. Ewɔ nubabla tɔxɛ aɖe kple Fante kple nutoa me amegã bubu geɖe, si wova yɔ be ƒe 1844 ƒe Agbalẽvi. Nuŋlɔɖi sia bia tso nutoa me kplɔlawo si be woatsɔ nuvlowɔwɔ gãwo ava Britaintɔwo ƒe ʋɔnudrɔ̃ƒewo eye wòɖo se si dzi woanɔ te ɖo axɔ Britaintɔwo ƒe dutanyigbawo le etsɔme.[31]

Asrafowo ƒe dzrewɔwɔ le Ashantitɔwo kple Fantetɔwo dome na Britaintɔwo ƒe ŋusẽkpɔɖeamedzi dzi ɖe edzi le Sikaƒuta, esime Fante-dukɔwo—siwo tsi dzi ɖe Ashantitɔwo ƒe dɔwɔnawo ŋu le ƒuta—de asi ƒe 1844 ƒe Sewɔtakpekpe te le Fomena-Adansi, si na Britaintɔwo xɔ ʋɔnudrɔ̃ŋusẽ le Afrika ʋɔnudrɔ̃ƒewo si. Ƒutadukɔ geɖe wu kple dukɔ bubu siwo le anyigba ƒe go kemɛ dzi va de asi Bond la te mlɔeba, eye wolɔ̃ ɖe Britaintɔwo ƒe ŋusẽkpɔɖeamedzi dzi, wodo ŋusẽe, eye wòkekee ɖe enu. Le ƒe 1844 ƒe nubabla la ƒe sewo nu la, Britaintɔwo na wòsusu be yewoakpɔ ƒutanutowo ta; eyata ametakpɔha aɖe si womewɔ le ɖoɖo nu o va dzɔ. Esi agbanɔamedzi siwo nye be woaʋli nutoa me dukɔ siwo wɔ ɖeka kplii ta ahakpɔ ƒuta takpɔƒea ƒe nyawo dzi nɔ dzidzim ɖe edzi la, woɖe Gold Coast ƒe dziɖuɖu ɖa tso Sierra Leone tɔ gbɔ le ƒe 1850 me.[32]

Tso ƒe 1850 me la, ƒutanutowo va nɔ Britaintɔwo ƒe mɔ̃ sesẽwo ƒe nutodziɖula ƒe ŋusẽ te geɖe wu, eye Dɔdzikpɔha kple Sewɔtakpekpea kpe ɖe eŋu. Dɔdzikpɔha la nye Europa dziɖuɖumegãwo ƒe ƒuƒoƒo sue aɖe si ɖoa aɖaŋu na nutodziɖula la, kafua sewo, eye wodaa akɔ ɖe adzɔxexe ŋu, eye wo katã le nutodziɖula la ƒe mɔɖeɖe te. Sewɔtakpekpea me tɔwo nye Dɔdzikpɔha me tɔwo kple ame siwo menye dziɖuɖua tɔ o siwo wotia gbã tso Britaintɔwo ƒe asitsanyawo me. Le ƒe 1900 megbe la, wotsɔ amegã etɔ̃ kple Afrikatɔ etɔ̃ bubuwo kpe ɖe Sewɔtakpekpea ŋu, togbɔ be Afrikatɔ siwo tso Ashanti kple Dziehe Nutowo me metsɔ wo de eme o vaseɖe emegbe ŋutɔ hã. Le April 1852 me la, nutoa me amegãwo kple hamemegãwo kpe ta le Cape Coast be yewoadzro alesi woawɔ akpɔ gae me kple nutodziɖula la. Esi nutodziɖula la da asi ɖe edzi la, amegãwo ƒe aɖaŋuɖoha la ɖo eɖokui wòzu sewɔtakpekpe. Esi nutodziɖula la da asi ɖe eƒe nyametsotsowo dzi la, eɖee fia be ele be amegãwo ƒe takpekpea nazu ametakpɔha ƒe dziɖuɖua ƒe akpa aɖe si anɔ anyi ɖaa, gake wometsɔ ŋusẽ tɔxɛ aɖeke na takpekpea be wòade se alo axɔ adzɔ amewo ƒe lɔlɔ̃nu manɔmee o.[33]

Anglo-Ashanti-ʋa Evelia dzɔ le ƒe 1863 me eye wòyi edzi vaseɖe ƒe 1864. Le ƒe 1872 me la, Britaintɔwo ƒe ŋusẽkpɔɖeamedzi ɖe Gold Coast dzi gadzi ɖe edzi esi Britain ƒle Elmina Mɔ̃ sesẽ, si nye Netherlandstɔwo ƒe mɔ̃ sesẽ mamlɛtɔ si le ƒuta. Ashantitɔ siwo bu Hollandtɔ siwo le Elmina ƒe geɖe be wonye yewoƒe hadɔwɔlawo la to esia me bu ir asitsatsa to ƒu dzi ƒe mɔnukpɔkpɔ mamlɛtɔ. Be woaxe mɔ ɖe nusiwo bu sia nu eye woakpɔ egbɔ be woyi edzi le ga kpɔm tso asitsaƒe ma la, Ashantitɔwo dze ƒuta dzi dzedze mamlɛtɔ gɔme le ƒe 1873. Le dzidzedzekpɔkpɔ gbãtɔwo megbe la, wodo go Britain-srafoha siwo xɔ hehe nyuie mlɔeba siwo na wogbugbɔ ɖe megbe le Pra Tɔsisia godo. Agbagba siwo wodze emegbe be woawɔ ɖoɖo ɖe masɔmasɔa ŋu le ŋutifafa me kple Britaintɔwo la, woƒe asrafowo ƒe amegã, Aʋafiagã Sir Garnet Wolseley, gbe. Britaintɔwo tsɔ asrafoha gã aɖe dze Ashanti dzi, eye wodze Anglo-Ashantitɔwo ƒe Aʋa Etɔ̃lia gɔme. Amedzidzedze sia si Britain-srafo 2,500 kple Afrika-srafo geɖe siwo kpe asi ɖe eŋu dze egɔme le January 1874 me la na woxɔ Kumasi, si nye Ashantitɔwo ƒe fiadu, eye wotɔ dzoe. Le woƒe ʋɔnudrɔ̃ŋusẽ si nɔ dzidzim ɖe edzi ɖaa le ƒuta kple be woakpɔ egbɔ be ƒutadukɔwo gakpɔtɔ le ŋusẽ te sesĩe ta la, Britaintɔwo ɖe gbeƒãe be Gold Coast Colony li le July 24, 1874. Domenyigba sia keke tso ƒuta le anyigba ƒe go kemɛ dzi va ɖo Ashanti-nyigba ƒe go kemɛ dzi. Togbɔ be ƒutadukɔwo metsɔ dzo ɖe ŋgɔyiyi sia ŋu o hã la, wometsi tre ɖe eŋu le afisiafi o. Ŋutifafanubabla si wowɔ emegbe le ƒe 1875 me bia tso Ashantitɔwo si be woaɖe asi le anyigbamama geɖe siwo le dzigbe gome ŋu. Ele be Ashantitɔwo hã nana mɔ si yi Kumasi la nanɔ ʋuʋu ɖi na asitsatsa. Tso afisia la, Ashanti ƒe ŋusẽ dzi ɖe kpɔtɔ vivivi. Dukɔwo ƒe habɔbɔa mu vivivi esime anyigbamama siwo le wo te la klã eye wokpɔ nuto siwo trɔ le Britaintɔwo ƒe dziɖuɖu te la ta. Nubabla la dzi wɔwɔ na kuxi sesẽwo yi edzi eye aʋawɔwɔwo do mo ɖa. Le ƒe 1896 me la, Britaintɔwo dɔ mɔzɔha bubu si gaxɔ Kumasi eye wozi Ashanti dzi be wòazu Britain Fiaɖuƒea ƒe ametakpɔƒe. Esia va zu Anglo-Ashantitɔwo ƒe Aʋa Enelia, si yi edzi tso ƒe 1894 va ɖo ƒe 1896 me.[34]

Le ƒe 1896 me la, Britain-srafoha aɖe dze Ashanti dzi eye woɖe Asantehene si nye afimatɔ, Prempeh I, ɖa le dziɖuɖua me. Britaintɔwo ƒe amegã aɖe si le Kumasi va xɔ ɖe Ashantitɔwo ƒe ŋgɔnɔla si woɖe le zi dzi la teƒe. Eyata Britaintɔwo ƒe ŋusẽkpɔɖeamedzi ƒe akpaa keke ta va xɔ Ashantitɔwo le woƒe dziɖuɖu le ƒe 1896. Gake Britaintɔwo ƒe Nutomedziɖula Hodgson yi ŋgɔ akpa le mɔxexe ɖe Ashantitɔwo nu me esime, le ƒe 1900 me la, ebia be woatsɔ "Sika Afɔdzideƒe," si nye Ashantitɔwo ƒe dziɖuɖu kple ɖokuisinɔnɔ ƒe dzesi mamlɛtɔ. Esia na wova wɔ Aʋa si woyɔna be Golden Stool ɖe Britaintɔwo ŋu. Wogaɖu Ashantitɔwo dzi ake le ƒe 1901. Esi wonya nya aboyo Asantehenetɔwo kple eƒe aɖaŋuɖoha la, Britaintɔwo tia kɔmiunisttɔ si nɔa Ashanti. Wokpɔa Ashanti-dukɔ ɖesiaɖe dzi ɖe vovo eye mlɔeba la, wogblɔa eŋu na Gold Coast ƒe nutodziɖula. Le ɣeyiɣi ma me la, Britaintɔwo va tsɔ ɖe le Dziehe Nuto siwo le Ashanti ƒe dziehe gome, elabena woxɔe se be esia axe mɔ na Franseawo kple Germanytɔwo ƒe ŋgɔyiyi. Le ƒe 1896 megbe la, wokeke takpɔkpɔ ɖe enu yi dziehe nuto siwo dzi Ashanti kpɔ ŋusẽ ɖo le woƒe asitsatsa kple ƒuta la me. Le ƒe 1898 kple 1899 me la, Europa-dukɔwo de dzesi liƒo siwo le Dziehe Nutowo kple Franseawo kple Germany-dukɔ siwo ƒo xlã wo dome le ŋutifafa me. Woɖo Gold Coast Takpɔƒea ƒe Dziehenutowo be wòanye Britaintɔwo ƒe ametakpɔƒe le September 26, 1901. To vovo na Ashanti Nutome la, womexɔ Dziehenutowo le se nu abe nuto ene o. Gake abe Ashanti Nutome ene la, wotsɔ wo de kɔmiunisttɔ aɖe si le afima si tsɔa akɔnta na Gold Coast ƒe Nutomedziɖula ƒe ŋusẽ te. Dudzikpɔla la ɖu Ashanti kple Dziehe Nutowo siaa dzi to gbeƒãɖeɖe siwo dziɖuɖua da asi ɖo me vaseɖe ƒe 1946 me.[35]

Esi dziehe nɔ Britaintɔwo ƒe ŋusẽ te la, Gold Coast ƒe anyigbamama etɔ̃awo—Colony (ƒutanutowo), Ashanti, kple Dziehe Nutowo—va zu, le taɖodzinu ŋutɔŋutɔwo katã ta la, dunyahehe ƒe akpa ɖeka, alo fiakuku ƒe nuto ɖeka, si woyɔna be Gold Coast. Wowu egbegbe Ghana ƒe liƒowo nu le May 1956 me esime Volta nutoa me tɔwo, si wogayɔna be British Mandated Togoland, da asi ɖe edzi le dutoƒonuƒoƒo me be woakpɔe ɖa be ele be Britain Togoland nazu egbegbe Ghana ƒe akpa aɖe hã; Togoland Sewɔtakpekpea da asi ɖe edzi 42% tsɔ tsi tre ɖe eŋu, esime ame 58% tia ɖekawɔwɔ.[36]

Dutanyigbadziɖuɖu ƒe Dziɖuɖu

[trɔ asi le eŋu | trɔ asi le etsoƒe ŋu]

Dutanyigbadziɖuɖu si le titina ƒe ŋgɔyiyi blewu na wova kpɔ ŋusẽ ɖeka ɖe nutoa me dɔwɔnawo dzi, togbɔ be wogatsɔa dɔwɔƒe siawo dzi kpɔkpɔ ŋutɔŋutɔ naa nutoa me dziɖuɖumegãwo kokoko hã. Wova ɖe dɔ kple agbanɔamedzi tɔxɛwo me kɔ nyuie, eye woɖe akpa si dukɔ deŋgɔwo wɔna le nutoa me dziɖuɖu me hã me kɔ. Wotu nutoa me dziɖuɖu ƒe ɖoɖo ɖe dziɖuɖumɔnu siwo wozãna tso blema ke dzi. Kɔƒea ƒe aɖaŋuɖotakpekpe siwo me amegãwo kple hamemegãwo le la kpɔa nuto ɖesiaɖe ƒe nuhiahiãwo gbɔ enumake, siwo dometɔ aɖewoe nye se kple ɖoɖo si wowɔna tso blema ke kple ameawo ƒe nyonyo bliboa. Aɖaŋuɖotakpekpe siawo ɖua dzi le nubabla me, ke menye to gomenɔamesi dzi o: togbɔ be dziɖulawoe tia amegã aɖe hã la, eyi edzi ɖu dzi elabena eƒe amewo xɔe.[37]

Britain dziɖuɖumegãwo tia dziɖuɖumɔnu aɖe si woyɔna be dziɖuɖu si metso tẽ o na woƒe nuto siwo dzi woɖu. Esia fia be amegã siwo nɔ anyi tso blema ke la lé woƒe ŋusẽ me ɖe asi gake ele be woawɔ ɖe mɔfiame siwo tso woƒe dɔmemegã siwo tso Europa gbɔ dzi. Dziɖuɖu si metso tẽ o nyo na Britaintɔwo elabena eɖea ga dzi kpɔtɔna (wohiã Europa dziɖuɖumegã ʋɛ aɖewo), eɖea nutoa me tɔwo ƒe tsitretsitsi ɖe woƒe dziɖuɖu ŋu dzi kpɔtɔ, eye wòkpena ɖe eŋu be se kple ɖoɖo nɔa anyi. Gake togbɔ be ele be wòana ŋusẽ nutoa me tɔwo hã la, le nyateƒe me la, ena amegãwo kpɔa fiadu si nye Accra gbɔ be woawɔ nyametsotsowo le esi teƒe be woakpɔ yewo ŋutɔ yewoƒe amewo gbɔ. Amegã geɖe, siwo xɔ bubu, medalẽ, kple sɔdola ƒe dzeside gɔ̃ hã tso dziɖuɖumegãwo gbɔ la va te wo ɖokui kpɔkpɔ be yewonye dziɖulawo. To ŋusẽ ƒe ɖoɖo siawo siwo nɔ anyi tso blema ke me léle ɖe asi me la, dziɖuɖu si metso tẽ o mehe mɔnukpɔkpɔ vɛ na ɖekakpui agbalẽnyala siwo le dzidzim ɖe edzi le dukɔa me o. Ƒuƒoƒo bubuwo mekpɔ dzidzɔ o elabena ƒuƒoƒo ƒe dɔwɔwɔ mesɔ gbɔ le nutoa me aɖaŋuɖohawo kple titinadziɖuɖua dome o, eye ame aɖewo se le wo ɖokui me be Britaintɔwo ƒe nutomedzikpɔlawo kpɔ ŋusẽ ɖe nutoa me dziɖuɖumegãwo dzi akpa.[38]

Le ƒe 1925 me la, woɖo amegãwo ƒe nutome aɖaŋuɖotakpekpewo ɖe anyigbamama etɔ̃ siwo katã dzi woɖu la me. Esia ƒe akpa aɖee nye be woana amegãwo nawɔ akpa aɖe le nuto bliboa me. Ƒe 1927 ƒe Dukɔmeviwo ƒe Dziɖuɖu ƒe Sededea na ŋusẽ kple nuto siwo dzi woakpɔ ŋusẽ ɖo na amegãwo kple aɖaŋuɖotakpekpewo me kɔ wu eye wowɔ ɖoɖo ɖe wo ŋu nyuie wu. Le ƒe 1935 me la, Dukɔmeviwo ƒe Dziɖuɖumegãwo ƒe Sededea ƒo titinadziɖuɖu si nɔ anyi le dutanyigbawo dzi kple nutoa me dziɖuɖuwo nu ƒu ɖekae wòzu dziɖuɖu ƒe ɖoɖo ɖeka. Wona ŋusẽ geɖe nutodziɖuɖu yeye siwo nutodziɖula la tia la be woaɖu dzi le nutoa me le titinadziɖuɖua ƒe nutomedzikpɔlawo ƒe dzikpɔkpɔ te, eye wokpɔa egbɔ be yewoƒe ɖoɖowo sɔ kple titinadziɖuɖua tɔ. Nutoa me aɖaŋuɖotakpekpewo kple agbagba siwo wodze be woado ŋusẽ wo la melɔ̃ o. Le Britaintɔwo ƒe dzidzenuwo nu gɔ̃ hã la, wometsɔ ŋusẽ si sɔ na amegãwo be woatsɔ dziɖuɖu si metso tẽ o ade dɔwɔwɔ me nyuie o. Ghanatɔ aɖewo xɔe se be tɔtrɔ siawo, to ŋusẽ geɖe nana amegãwo le nutoa me nyametsotsowɔwɔ ƒe gazazã me la, na dutanyigbadziɖuɖua ƒo asa na ʋuʋu yi amehawo ƒe gomekpɔkpɔ le nuto si me wole dziɖuɖua me ƒomevi ɖesiaɖe gbɔ.[39]

Ganyawo Kple Hadomegbenɔnɔ ƒe Ŋgɔyiyi

[trɔ asi le eŋu | trɔ asi le etsoƒe ŋu]

Ƒe siwo Britaintɔwo ɖu dzi le Gold Coast le ƒe alafa 20 lia me nye ŋgɔyiyi gã aɖe le hadome, ganyawo, kple sukudede ƒe ŋgɔyiyi me. Kadodomɔnu kple ketekemɔwo nyo ɖe edzi ŋutɔ. Ahedada dzi ɖe kpɔtɔ ŋutɔ, eye nu dze edzi na Ghana agbledelawo. Woto nuku yeyewo vɛ, eye kɔfi nye eƒe kpɔɖeŋu ɖedzesi aɖe. Gake nuku yeye siawo dometɔ si wɔ dɔ ɖe ame dzi wue nye kokooti, si tso Xexeme Yeyea me gbã eye Spaintɔwo kple Portugaltɔwo tsɔe va Afrika. Tetteh Quashie tsɔ kokoo va Gold Coast le ƒe 1879. Kokootiwo dodo kple woƒe agbledede va xɔ ŋkɔ ŋutɔ le Gold Coast ƒe ɣedzeƒekpa dzi. Le ƒe 1891 me la, kokoo pounde 80 koe Gold Coast tsɔ ɖo duta, si ƒe home mede Britaintɔwo ƒe pounde 4 o. Kaka ƒe 1920-awo naɖo la, kokoo si wodɔna ɖa la dzi ɖe edzi va ɖo tɔn 200,000 kple edzivɔ eye eƒe home nye Britaintɔwo ƒe pound miliɔn 4.7. Kokoo wɔwɔ va zu Gold Coast ƒe ganyawo ƒe akpa gã aɖe eye emegbe wòva zu Ghana ƒe ganyawo ƒe akpa gã aɖe.[40]

Ga si nuto si me tɔwo kpɔna la gadzi ɖe edzi tso ati kple sika siwo wotsɔ yi duta me. Ga si wokpɔ tso nuto si me tɔwo ƒe dzɔdzɔmenunɔamesiwo ɖoɖo ɖe duta me la na wokpɔ ga tsɔ wɔ ŋgɔyiyi le xɔtuɖaŋuwo kple hadomekpekpeɖeŋunadɔwo me le dukɔa me. Sukudede ƒe ɖoɖo si de ŋgɔ wu bubu ɖesiaɖe le Ɣetoɖoƒe Afrika hã ɖoɖo anyi tso ga si wokpɔ tso tomenu siwo wotsɔ yi duta me. Woto Britaintɔwo ƒe hehenana sia dzi ɖo Ghanatɔ agbalẽnyalawo ƒe ƒuƒoƒo yeye aɖe. Tso dutanyanyuigblɔlawo ƒe sukuwo dzi la, woʋu sekɛndrisukuwo kple suku kɔkɔ gbãtɔ le dukɔa me le ƒe alafa 20 lia ƒe gɔmedzedze.[41]

Wogblɔ be ganyawo kple hadomenyawo ƒe ŋgɔyiyi geɖe siwo wowɔ le Gold Coast le ƒe alafa 20 lia ƒe gɔmedzedze la tso Gordon Guggisberg, si nye nutodziɖula si wodzi le Canada, si subɔ tso ƒe 1919 va ɖo ƒe 1927. Le kwasiɖa ade gbãtɔ siwo wòtsɔ nye nutodziɖula me la, etsɔ ƒe ewo ƒe ŋgɔyiyi ƒe ɖoɖo aɖe ɖo Sewɔtakpekpea ŋkume. Edo susua ɖa gbã be woana ʋuɖoɖo nanyo ɖe edzi. Emegbe le ɖoɖo si nu wòle vevie nu la, ŋgɔyiyi siwo wòdo ɖa la dometɔ aɖewoe nye tsi nana, tsidzɔƒewo, tsiŋusẽdɔwɔƒewo, dutoƒoxɔwo, dugãwo me nuwo ɖɔɖɔɖo, sukuwo, kɔdziwo, gaxɔwo, kadodomɔ̃wo, kple dɔwɔƒe bubuwo. Guggisberg ɖoe hã be yeatsɔ Afrikatɔwo axɔ mɔ̃ɖaŋudɔwɔƒe siwo le nuto si me wole la ƒe afã ne wonya na hehe wo ko. Wogblɔ tso eƒe ɖoɖoa ŋu be enye esi wodo ɖa le Ɣetoɖoƒe Afrika vaseɖe ɣemaɣi.[42]

Nutoa kpe ɖe Britain ŋu le Xexemeʋa I kple Xexemeʋa II siaa me. Gake le ƒe siwo kplɔe ɖo me la, nuwo ƒe asi si nɔ dzi yim le aʋaa megbe kple malikenyenye xe mɔ na asitɔtrɔ le asrafo siwo trɔ gbɔ, siwo nɔ ŋgɔ na dzidzɔmakpɔmakpɔ kple zitɔtɔ si nɔ dzidzim ɖe edzi la ŋu vevie. Woƒe aʋawɔwɔ kple aʋawɔla veviedola ƒe habɔbɔwo keke woƒe nukpɔsusuwo ɖe enu, si wɔe be esesẽ na wo be woatrɔ ayi akpa bɔbɔe siwo seɖoƒe li na siwo dutanyigbadziɖuɖumegãwo ɖo ɖi na Afrikatɔwo la dzi.[43]

Dukɔmevinyenye ƒe Tsitsi Kple Dutanyigbadziɖuɖu ƒe Nuwuwu

[trɔ asi le eŋu | trɔ asi le etsoƒe ŋu]

Esi Ghana ƒe ganyawo nɔ dzidzim ɖe edzi la, eƒe dumeviwo ƒe hehenana hã yi ŋgɔ kabakaba. Le ƒe 1890 me la, dziɖuɖusuku 5 kple mawunyadɔgbedesuku 49 koe nɔ Gold Coast bliboa me, eye sukuvi 5,000 koe nɔ wo dome. Kaka ƒe 1920 naɖo la, dziɖuɖusuku 20, mawunyadɔgbedesuku 188 siwo "kpena ɖe ame ŋu", kple mawunyadɔgbedesuku 309 "siwo womekpena ɖe ame ŋu o" nɔ anyi, eye sukuviwo katã ƒe xexlẽme nye 43,000. Kaka ƒe 1940 naɖo la, ɖevi 91,000 nɔ Gold Coast sukuwo dem. Kaka ƒe 1950 naɖo la, xexlẽme ma dzi ɖe edzi va ɖo ɖevi 279,000 siwo de suku siwo ade 3,000 le Gold Coast. Esia fia be, le ƒe 1950 me la, ɖevi siwo xɔ ƒe siwo de suku le Gold Coast ƒe nuto si me wole la ƒe 43.6% nɔ suku dem.[44]

Kaka Xexemeʋa II nawu enu la, Gold Coast-dukɔa nye anyigbamama si me kesinɔnuwo bɔ ɖo wu eye wode suku wu le Ɣetoɖoƒe Afrika. Le sukudede ƒe nɔnɔme sia me la, dziɖuɖu ƒe ŋusẽ ƒe titina va trɔ vivivi tso nutodziɖula kple eƒe amegãwo gbɔ va zu Ghanatɔwo ŋutɔ. Tɔtrɔ siawo tso dukɔmevinyenye ƒe seselelãme sẽŋu si nɔ dzidzim ɖe edzi vivivi gbɔ eye wòana woava nɔ wo ɖokui si mlɔeba. Dukɔwo ƒe nyanyanana ƒe ŋgɔyiyi kabakaba kabakaba le Xexemeʋa II megbe. Ɣemaɣi la, tsɔ kpe ɖe asrafo tsãtɔwo ŋu la, Afrika dugã me dɔwɔlawo kple asitsalawo ƒe ƒuƒoƒo ɖedzesi aɖe do, si na kpekpeɖeŋu geɖe le ame ʋɛ aɖewo siwo de suku ƒe taɖodzinuwo ŋu.[45]

Dukɔmevinyenye ƒe Ðeɖefia Gbãtɔ le Ghana

[trɔ asi le eŋu | trɔ asi le etsoƒe ŋu]

Kaka ƒe alafa 19 lia nawu enu la, Afrikatɔ agbalẽnyalawo ƒe xexlẽme si le dzidzim ɖe edzi va kpɔe be dunyahehe ƒe ɖoɖo madzɔmadzɔ la medze o. Nuɖoanyi sia tsɔ ŋusẽ katã kloe de nutodziɖula la si to eƒe aɖaŋuɖotakpekpe me tɔwo ɖoɖo me. Le ƒe 1890-awo me la, ƒutatɔ xɔŋkɔ siwo de suku la me tɔ aɖewo ɖo Aboriginetɔwo ƒe Gomenɔamesiwo Takpɔha tsɔ tsi tre ɖe anyigba ƒe se aɖe si do ŋɔdzi na anyigba ƒe amesinɔnɔ tso blema ke la ŋu. Tsitretsiɖeŋu sia kpe ɖe eŋu woɖo gɔmeɖoanyi na dunyahehe me nuwɔna siwo ana woakpɔ ɖokuisinɔnɔ mlɔeba. Le ƒe 1920 me la, Afrikatɔ siwo nye Sewɔtakpekpea me tɔ ɖeka, Joseph E. Casely-Hayford, wɔ ɖoɖo ɖe Britaintɔwo ƒe Ɣetoɖoƒe Afrika Dukɔa ƒe Sewɔtakpekpe ŋu. Dukɔa ƒe Sewɔtakpekpea bia be woawɔ ɖɔɖɔɖo vovovowo kple susu yeyewo na Britaintɔwo ƒe Ɣetoɖoƒe Afrika.[46]

Dukɔa ƒe Sewɔtakpekpea dɔ ƒuƒoƒo aɖe ɖe London be woaƒoe ɖe Nutomedziɖuɖudɔwɔƒea nu be woabu susu si nye be woatia amedɔdɔwo ŋu. Ƒuƒoƒo sia, si gblɔ be yewoƒoa nu ɖe Britaintɔwo ƒe Ɣetoɖoƒe Afrika nuto siwo katã dzi woɖu ta lae nye zi gbãtɔ si agbalẽnyalawo kple dukɔmeviʋawɔla siwo le nutoa me ɖe dunyahehe me ɖekawɔwɔ fia. Togbɔ be womexɔ amedɔdɔawo le London o (elabena woʋli nya be ƒuƒoƒo sue aɖe koe wole teƒe na) hã la, woƒe nuwɔnawo va do alɔ Afrikatɔ ŋkuta siwo nɔ wo de la ŋutɔ.[47]

Togbɔ be woyɔ ame tiatiawo ɖe ɖoɖo si me nutodziɖula la tiaa aɖaŋuɖotakpekpe me tɔwo teƒe hã la, dukɔmeviʋawɔla siawo te tɔ ɖe edzi be yewowɔa nuteƒe na Britain Fiaɖuƒea. Ðeko wodi be yewoakeke Britaintɔwo ƒe dunyahehe kple hadomenuwɔnawo ɖe enu wòaɖo Afrikatɔwo gbɔ. Kplɔla ɖedzesiwo dometɔ aɖewoe nye Africanus Horton, agbalẽŋlɔla John Mensah Sarbah, kple S. R. B. Attah-Ahoma. Ŋutsu mawo na dukɔmevinyenye ƒe habɔbɔa se le eɖokui me be yewole ame ŋkuta si dze ƒã si nɔ anyi vaseɖe ƒe 1940 ƒeawo ƒe nuwuwu lɔƒo.[48]

Dukplɔse si Guggisberg de dɔwɔwɔ me le April 8, 1925 dzi la na amegã veviwo ƒe nutomeɖaŋuɖotakpekpewo na amesiame negbe nuto si me tɔwo ƒe dziehe nutowo koe mele eme o. Aɖaŋuɖoha siawo hã tia amegã ade be woanye Sewɔtakpekpea me tɔ siwo menye dziɖuɖua tɔ o. Gake Britaintɔwo ƒe ame akpa gãtɔ si wotu ɖe aɖaŋuɖoha sia me ɣesiaɣi, eye aɖaŋuɖoɖo koe eƒe ŋusẽwo nye. Togbɔ be edze abe dukplɔse yeyea lɔ̃ ɖe Afrikatɔwo ƒe seselelãme aɖewo dzi ene hã la, Britaintɔwo ƒe viɖewo takpɔkpɔ koŋue Guggisberg tsi dzi ɖo. Le kpɔɖeŋu me, ena gbe seɖoƒe li na Afrikatɔwo le titinadziɖuɖua me; ke hã esi wòɖe mɔ be woaɖo amegãwo ko ta la, ena mama va amegãwo kple wo tevi siwo de suku dome. Ame siwo de suku la xɔe se be amegãwo, ɖe Britaintɔwo ƒe kpekpeɖeŋu ta, ɖe mɔ na nutome aɖaŋuɖotakpekpewo be wodze dziɖuɖua ƒe ŋusẽ te keŋkeŋ. Gake kaka ƒe 1930 ƒeawo ƒe domedome naɖo la, amegãwo kple agbalẽnyalawo ƒe ƒuƒoƒo vivivi dze egɔme.[49]

Woyi edzi bia be woanɔ ame teƒe siwo sɔ wu. Nyadzɔdzɔgbalẽ siwo nye Afrikatɔwo tɔ eye wokpɔa wo dzi la wɔ akpa vevi aɖe le dzimaɖitsitsi sia ʋuʋu me—wonɔ ade tam le ƒe 1930-awo me. Le yɔyɔ be woana amewo nakeke ta wu ta la, wotsɔ Afrikatɔ eve bubu siwo menye dziɖuɖua tɔ o kpe ɖe Dɔdzikpɔha la ŋu le ƒe 1943. Gake eva hiã be tɔtrɔ siwo va le Sewɔtakpekpea me nalala dunyahehe ƒe nɔnɔme bubu aɖe le London, si va esime wotia Britaintɔwo ƒe Dɔwɔlawo ƒe Habɔbɔ ƒe dziɖuɖu aɖe le aʋa megbe ko.[50]

Gold Coast ƒe dukplɔse yeye si wowɔ le March 29, 1946 dzi la nye agbalẽ si woŋlɔ kple dzideƒo. Zi gbãtɔe nye ema woɖe asi le dziɖuɖumegãwo ƒe ame akpa gãtɔ (si fia be Britain dziɖuɖumegãwo ƒe akɔdada geɖe wu) ƒe susua ŋu. Fifia Sewɔtakpekpea me tɔ ade siwo dziɖuɖumegãwo le (amesiwo le dziɖuɖu ƒe ɖoƒewo), ame ade siwo wotia to ameɖoɖo me, kple ame wuiatɔ̃ siwo woti. Ke hã, aɖaŋuɖoɖo ƒe ŋusẽ koe gakpɔtɔ nɔ Sewɔtakpekpea si – dziɖuɖu ƒe ŋusẽ katã gakpɔtɔ nɔ nutodziɖula la si. Ƒe 1946 ƒe dukplɔsea hã ɖe mɔ na Ashanti teƒenɔlawo be woage ɖe aɖaŋuɖoha la me hena ti gbãtɔ nye. Esi Dɔwɔlawo ƒe Habɔbɔ ƒe dziɖuɖu aɖe nɔ dzi ɖum gɔ̃ hã la, Britaintɔwo yi edzi bu nuto siwo dzi woɖu la be wonye nu xoxo siwo hiã be woatsɔ ado ŋusẽ woƒe ganya si gbɔdzɔ la tsoƒe. Tɔtrɔ si atsɔ ŋusẽ ŋutɔŋutɔ ade Afrikatɔwo si me menye nu vevitɔ le Britain-kplɔlawo dome o vaseɖe esime ʋunyaʋunyawɔwɔ kple adzodada le Accra kple du kple dugã bubuwo me le ƒe 1948 ƒe gɔmedzedze megbe.[51]

Esi hamevi siwo woti la nye ame akpa gãtɔ si metso nya me le o ta la, Ghana ɖo dunyahehe me tsitsi ƒe seƒe si ɖeke mesɔ kplii le Afrika si nɔ anyi le dutanyigbawo dzi ƒe teƒe bubu aɖeke o. Gake dukplɔsea meɖe mɔ be woaɖu wo ɖokui dzi bliboe o. Dɔdzikpɔŋusẽ gakpɔtɔ nɔ nutodziɖula si, amesi Sewɔtakpekpea ka nya ta na. Eyata togbɔ be wotsɔ dzonɔameme do gbe na dukplɔsea be enye nu ɖedzesi aɖe hã la, eteƒe medidi o edo go kuxiwo. Ðeko Xexemeʋa II wu enu teti koe nye ema, eye Gold Coast aʋawɔla veviedola geɖe siwo subɔ le Britaintɔwo ƒe asrafomɔzɔzɔwo me le ƒuta la trɔ yi dukɔ si nɔ avu wɔm kple nusiwo hiã, nuwo ƒe asi si le dzi yim, dɔmakpɔwɔe, kple asitsahabɔbɔ siwo mele se nu o. Veviedonula siawo, kpakple dugã me dɔwɔla siwo mekpɔ dzidzɔ o, ɖo ƒuƒoƒo vevi aɖe si me tɔwo ƒe dzi medzɔ o siwo le klalo be yewoawɔ nusiwo agblẽ nu le ame ŋu. Fifia agbledela siwo do dziku ɖe dziɖuɖu ƒe afɔɖeɖe sesẽ siwo bia tso wo si be woalã kakao-ti siwo ŋu dɔléle le be woatsɔ aɖu dɔvɔ̃ aɖe dzi la va kpe ɖe wo ŋu, eye ame bubu geɖe siwo mekpɔ dzidzɔ be ganyawo ƒe ŋgɔyiyi mekplɔ aʋaa ƒe nuwuwu o la va kpe ɖe wo ŋu.[52]

Ðokuisihabɔbɔwo ƒe Dunyahehe

[trɔ asi le eŋu | trɔ asi le etsoƒe ŋu]

Togbɔ be dunyahehabɔbɔwo nɔ Britaintɔwo ƒe nuto si dzi woɖu me tsã hã la, United Gold Coast Convention (UGCC), si Ghanatɔ agbalẽnyala siwo woyɔna be The Big Six ɖo anyi le August 4, 1947 dzi lae nye dukɔmevinyenye ƒe habɔbɔ gbãtɔ si ƒe taɖodzinue nye be yeaɖo yewo ɖokuidziɖuɖu gbɔ "le ɣeyiɣi kpuitɔ kekeake me." Ebia be woatsɔ ame siwo de suku aɖɔli amegã siwo le Sewɔtakpekpea me. Wobia hã be, le woƒe sukudede ta la, ele be dutanyigbadziɖuɖua nade bubu yewo ŋu eye wòana agbanɔamedzinɔƒewo yewo. Vevietɔ UGCC ƒe ŋgɔnɔlawo ɖe ɖeklemi dziɖuɖua le esi wòdo kpo dɔmakpɔwɔe, nuwo ƒe asixɔxɔ ƒe dziyiyi, kple zitɔtɔ si va bɔ ɖe hadomegbenɔnɔ me le aʋaa megbe ƒe kuxiwo gbɔ kpɔkpɔ ta. Togbɔ be wotsi tre ɖe dutanyigbadziɖuɖua ŋu hã la, UGCC me tɔwo medi tɔtrɔ kpata alo tɔtrɔ kpata o.

Dutoƒo ƒe dzimaɖitsitsi ɖe UGCC ŋu va dze ƒã le February 28, 1948 dzi, esime asrafo tsãtɔwo ƒe wɔwɔfia aɖe, si ŋu woƒe dɔwɔha wɔ ɖoɖo ɖo, zɔ to Accra. Be kpovitɔwo nagbã ʋunyaʋunyawɔwɔa la, woda tu wo, eye wowu asrafo tsãtɔ etɔ̃ eye woxɔ abi ame blaade. Ŋkeke atɔ̃ ƒe ŋutasẽnuwɔwɔ ƒe zitɔtɔ kplɔe ɖo le Accra le tudadaa ta, eye ʋunyaʋunyawɔlawo ge ɖe fiase siwo nye Europatɔwo kple Siriatɔwo tɔ me heda adzo wo. Zitɔtɔ dzɔ le Kumasi kple du bubu siwo le Gold Coast godoo hã me. Britain dziɖuɖumegãwo de ame Ade Gãwo, siwo dome Kwame Nkrumah hã le, gaxɔ me tso March 12 vaseɖe April 12, 1948. Kwame Nkrumah gblẽ nu le UGCC ŋu le dutoƒo le eƒe Easter Takpekpea me le ƒe 1949 me eye wòɖo eƒe Convention People’s Party (CPP) le June 12, 1949. Le eƒe ɣeyiɣi kpui aɖe si wòtsɔ nɔ UGCC, Nkrumah, si de suku le United States megbe kple Britain, do le habɔbɔa me le eƒe dziɖeleameƒo le agbagbadzedze gbɔdzɔgbɔdzɔ siwo UGCC dze be yeakpɔ Gold Coast ƒe nuto si me tɔwo nɔ la ƒe kuxiwo gbɔ to dutanyigbadziɖuɖu ƒe dukplɔse yeye bubu si me kɔ wu me dzodzro kple Britaintɔwo ƒe dutanyigbadziɖuɖua me ta. To vovo na UGCC ƒe yɔyɔ be woawɔ ɖokuidziɖuɖu "le ɣeyiɣi kpuitɔ kekeake me" la, Nkrumah kple CPP bia be "woawɔ ɖokuidziɖuɖu fifia." Akpahaa ƒe ŋgɔnɔlawo de dzesi dɔwɔla tsɛwo wu UGCC kple eƒe ame ŋkuta siwo de suku. Ameha siwo doa vevie nu le dunyahehe me la ƒe akpa gãtɔ nye asrafomegã tsãtɔwo, ame siwo nya agbalẽ, nyadzɔdzɔŋlɔlawo, kple gɔmedzesuku nufialawo, eye wo katã wova lɔ̃ demokrasi si ame geɖe lɔ̃na ƒe nukpɔsusua. Adzɔnudɔwɔla siwo mede suku o gake wole dugãwo me ƒe xexlẽme si le dzidzim ɖe edzi hã va nɔ kpekpeɖeŋunaha la me. Kaka June 1949 naɖo la, ame geɖe nɔ Nkrumah yome. Dukplɔse si wowɔ le January 1, 1951 dzi la tso Coussey Kɔmiti si woɖo le tɔtɔ siwo dzɔ le Accra kple du bubuwo me le ƒe 1948. Tsɔ kpe ɖe Afrika subɔsubɔhakplɔlawo ƒe akpa gãtɔ nana Dɔdzikpɔha la ŋu la, eɖo takpekpe aɖe si me ame siwo wotia ƒe afã atso duwo kple kɔƒenutowo me, eye afã atso aɖaŋuɖotakpekpe siwo wowɔna le kɔnu nu. Togbɔ be enye afɔɖeɖe gã aɖe hã la, dukplɔse yeyea gakpɔtɔ mede CPP ƒe didi be woawɔ ɖokuidziɖuɖu blibo la nu kura o. Dziɖuɖumegãwo ƒe ŋusẽ gakpɔtɔ nɔ Britaintɔwo si, eye wowɔ sewɔtakpekpea be wòaɖe mɔ na kplɔla siwo nɔ anyi tso blema ke naɖu wo dzi.[53]

Esi dukɔa ƒe kpekpeɖeŋu le dzidzim ɖe edzi ta la, CPP dze "Afɔɖeɖe Nyui" ƒe aʋawɔwɔ gɔme le ƒe 1950 ƒe gɔmedzedze si ƒe taɖodzinue nye be woadze dɔmedzoedoname si keke ta kple tsitretsiɖeŋu si me ŋutasẽnuwɔwɔ mele o gɔme. Esi ŋutasẽnuwɔna aɖewo dzɔ le January 20, 1950 dzi la, wolé Nkrumah hedee gaxɔ me le aglãdzedze ta. Ðeko esia na wòzu kplɔla kple kalẽtɔ geɖe wu, eye wòtu amewo ƒe kpekpeɖeŋu ɖo. Ne ɣeyiɣi si me wowɔ tiatia gbãtɔ na Sewɔtakpekpea le dukplɔse yeyea te tso February 5–10, 1951, Nkrumah (si gakpɔtɔ le gaxɔ me) xɔ zikpui ɖeka, eye CPP xɔ ame akpa gãtɔ ƒe akpa eve le etɔ̃ me, eye wòkpɔ zikpui 34 le 38 siwo woti le Sewɔtakpekpea me la me. Woɖe asi le Nkrumah ŋu le gaxɔ me le February 11, 1951 dzi, eye le ŋufɔke la, elɔ̃ ɖe amekpekpe be wòaɖo dziɖuɖu aɖe dzi. Nkrumah ƒe zimenɔɣi gbãtɔ ƒe gɔmedzedze nye nuwɔwɔ aduadu kple Britaintɔwo ƒe nutodziɖula. Le ƒe ʋɛ siwo kplɔe ɖo me la, dziɖuɖua trɔ vivivi va zu sewɔtakpekpe ƒe ɖoɖo blibo. Afrikatɔwo ƒe ƒuƒoƒo siwo nye kɔnyinyiwo wu tsi tre ɖe tɔtrɔ siawo ŋu, togbɔ be woƒe tsitretsiɖeŋua mewɔ dɔ o le alesi ame geɖe da asi ɖe ɖokuisinɔnɔ kaba dzi ta.[54]

Le March 10, 1952 dzi la, woɖo Prime Minister ƒe ɖoƒe yeyea, eye Sewɔtakpekpea tia Nkrumah ɖe ɖoƒea. Le ɣeyiɣi ma ke me la, Dɔdzikpɔha la va zu Dudɔnunɔlawo ƒe Habɔbɔ. Dukplɔse yeye si wowɔ le May 5, 1954 dzi la wu towo ƒe aɖaŋuɖotakpekpewo ƒe sewɔtakpekpe me tɔwo tiatia nu. Sewɔtakpekpea ƒe lolome dzi ɖe edzi, eye wotia hameviwo katã to tiatia tẽ me tso nuto siwo ƒe lolome sɔ, siwo me ame ɖeka koe ate ŋu ada akɔ le me. Aʋawɔnyawo kple dutanyawo gbɔ kpɔkpɔ koe gakpɔtɔ nɔ Dudzikpɔla la si; wona sewɔtakpekpe si wotia la be wòakpɔ Nutomea ƒe ememenyawo katã kloe dzi. CPP ɖu zikpui 71 le zikpui 104 me le June 15, 1954 ƒe tiatia me.[55]

Takpekpea ƒe Dukɔmeviwo ƒe Habɔbɔ (CPP) ƒe taɖodzinue nye be yeatsɔ dunyahehe ƒe ŋusẽ aɖo teƒe ɖeka, gake mɔnu sia dze ŋgɔ tsitretsiɖeŋu sesẽ. Le tiatia si wowɔ le June 15, 1954 dzi megbe kpuie la, woɖo dunyaheha yeye aɖe si nye Dukɔa ƒe Ablɔɖehabɔbɔ (NLM) ɖe Ashanti nutoa me. NLM di be woawɔ dukɔa ƒe dziɖuɖu ƒe ɖoɖo, afisi ŋusẽ geɖe anɔ nuto vovovowo si le. NLM ƒe ŋgɔnɔlawo ɖe ɖeklemi CPP, eye wokpɔe be wova zu ŋutasẽdziɖulawo. Akpa yeye sia wɔ dɔ aduadu kple nutome ƒuƒoƒo bubu si nye Dziehe Dukɔmeviwo ƒe Dunyaheha. Esi nutome dunyaheha eve siawo dzo le numedzodzro siwo ku ɖe dukplɔse yeye ŋu me la, CPP tsi dzi be London ate ŋu akpɔ ɖekamawɔmawɔ sia be enye dzesi be nuto si dzi woɖu la mesu te na ɖokuidziɖuɖu ƒe akpa si kplɔe ɖo o.[56]

Gake Britaintɔwo ƒe dukplɔse ŋuti aɖaŋuɖola la da asi ɖe CPP ƒe nukpɔsusua dzi. Emegbe nutodziɖula la ɖe sewɔtakpekpea ɖa be yeakpɔe ɖa be ameawo da asi ɖe CPP ƒe ɖokuisinɔnɔ enumake ƒe didia dzi vavã hã. Le May 11, 1956 dzi la, Britaintɔwo lɔ̃ be yewoana ɖokuisinɔnɔ ne sewɔtakpekpe yeyea me tɔ akpa gãtɔ "si sɔ" biae. Wowɔ tiatia yeyewo le July 17, 1956. Le tiatia siwo wowɔ kplikplikpli me la, CPP xɔ ame 57 le alafa me. Gake esi tsitretsiɖeŋulawo ma ta la, CPP te ŋu ɖu zikpui ɖesiaɖe dzi le dzigbe gome, kpakple zikpui siwo sɔ le Ashanti, Dziehe Nutowo, kple Trans-Volta Nutome be woakpɔ ame akpa gãtɔ ƒe akpa eve le etɔ̃ me, eye woxɔ zikpui 72 le zikpui 104 la me.[57]

Le May 9, 1956 dzi la, woda akɔ le Dukɔ Ƒoƒuawo (UN) ƒe dzikpɔkpɔ te be woatso nya me le Britain Togoland kple Franse Togoland ƒe etsɔme ŋu. Britaintɔwo ƒe nudzraɖoƒe si nye Germanytɔwo ƒe nuto si dzi woɖu tsã ƒe ɣetoɖoƒekpa dzi la do ƒome kple Gold Coast tso ƒe 1919 me eye eteƒenɔlawo nɔ eƒe sewɔtakpekpea me. To si xɔ aƒe ɖe nuto sia me, si nye Ewetɔwo, ma ɖe Togotɔ eveawo dome. Britaintɔwo ƒe Togolandtɔwo ƒe akpa gãtɔ (58%) da asi ɖe edzi be yewoawɔ ɖeka kple Gold Coast, eye nutoa va zu Ashanti kple Dagbon ƒe akpa aɖe. Ke hã, Ewetɔwo (42%) tsi tre ɖe woƒe ɖekawɔwɔ sia ŋu vevie le Britaintɔwo ƒe Togoland.[58]

Ʋuʋu Yi Ðokuisinɔamesi Gbɔ

[trɔ asi le eŋu | trɔ asi le etsoƒe ŋu]

Le ƒe 1945 me la, wowɔ takpekpe aɖe si woyɔna be Pan-African Congress 5 lia le Manchester tsɔ do ɖekawɔwɔ ƒe susuwo ɖe ŋgɔ le Afrikatɔwo dome. Nkrumah si tso Ghana, Nnamdi Azikiwe si tso Nigeria, kple I. T. A. Wallace-Johnson si tso Sierra Leone ye de kpekpe sia. India kple Pakistan ƒe ɖokuisinɔnɔ gade dzo didi sia be woaɖu wo ɖokui dzi me. Wogbe Afrikatɔwo ƒe dekɔnuwo hã vie ɣemaɣi. Ŋusẽkpɔɖeamedzi aɖewo siwo tso egodo hã na wose le wo ɖokui me. Afrika-Amerikatɔwo abe W. E. B. Du Bois kple Marcus Garvey (Afro-Jamaicatɔ) do Afrika-Amerikatɔwo ƒe nyanyanana ɖe ŋgɔ vevie.

Aƒetɔ Alan Burns ƒe dukplɔse si wowɔ le ƒe 1946 me ɖo sewɔtakpekpe yeye aɖe si me Dudzikpɔla nye Dukplɔla, dziɖuɖumegã 6, hamevi 6 siwo woɖo, kple ame 18 siwo woti. Dɔdzikpɔha la mebu akɔnta na sewɔtakpekpea o. Aɖaŋuɖoɖodɔ koe wowɔna, eye mehiã be nutodziɖula la nawɔ ɖe woƒe aɖaŋuɖoɖowo dzi o.[59]

Nu siawo na Ðɔkta J. B. Danquah ɖo United Gold Coast Convention (UGCC) le ƒe 1947 me, eye wokpe Nkrumah be wòanye akpahaa ƒe agbalẽŋlɔlagã. Woƒe taɖodzinue nye ɖokuisinɔnɔ na Ghana. Wogbe Burns ƒe dukplɔsea eye wodo susu ɖa be woawɔ ɖɔɖɔɖo le eƒe nya geɖe ŋu. Ena gbe amegãwo kple woƒe towo ƒe aɖaŋuɖohawo hã to mɔɖeɖe ɖe nutome takpekpewo ɖoɖo ŋu me. Se aɖeke si atrɔ dukplɔsea ƒe nya siwo wokpɔ ta na alo akpɔ ŋusẽ ɖe nutome habɔbɔwo ƒe ŋusẽ alo amegãwo ƒe mɔnukpɔkpɔwo dzi la mate ŋu ava zu se o negbe ɖe Dukɔa ƒe Sewɔtakpekpea ƒe akɔdada eve le etɔ̃ me da asi ɖe edzi eye woda asi ɖe edzi to ame akpa gãtɔ ƒe akɔdada bɔbɔe me le nutome sewɔtakpekpewo ƒe akpa eve le etɔ̃ me ko hafi. Gake esi nutoa me CPP ƒe akpadzinɔlawo va kpɔ ŋusẽ ɖe nutome sewɔtakpekpe siwo sɔ dzi la, Nkrumah dziɖuɖua de se aɖe kaba si ɖe ametakpɔkpɔ ƒe nya tɔxɛ sia ɖa le dukplɔsea me. Afɔɖeɖe sia na ŋusẽ Dukɔa ƒe Sewɔtakpekpea be wòawɔ tɔtrɔ ɖesiaɖe si CPP susu be ehiã le dukplɔse me.[60]

CPP ƒe aʋadziɖuɖu le tiatiawɔblɔɖe me le ƒe 1951 me dze ƒe atɔ̃ ƒe ŋusẽ si woama kple Britaintɔwo gɔme. Ganyawo kpɔ dzidzedze, eye xexeame katã ƒe nudidi geɖe eye kokoo ƒe asi nɔ dzi yim. Alesi Kokoo ƒe Asitsahabɔbɔa wɔ dɔ nyuie la na woate ŋu azã viɖe gãwo ɖe xɔtuɖaŋuwo tutuɖo ŋu. Wokeke sukudede kple egbegbe tɔtrɔ ƒe dɔwo ɖe enu ŋutɔ, abe dɔwɔƒewo ƒe du yeye si le Tema ene. Nkrumah lɔ̃ habɔbɔ yeyewo abe Sɔhɛ Mɔɖelawo na sɔhɛwo kple Xɔtulawo ƒe Asrafoha siwo wɔa agbledede ƒe mɔ̃ɖaŋununya ene koŋ. Ƒuƒoƒo siawo ɖea awuwo, atsyãwo, dulɔlɔ̃ha yeyewo, eye wodoa dukɔmevinyenye nyui aɖe ɖe ŋgɔ afisi amesiame srɔ̃nɛ le be yewoƒe dɔ vevitɔe nye dziɖuɖua.[61]

Le August 3, 1956 dzi la, sewɔtakpekpe yeyea da asi ɖe nyametsotso aɖe dzi si na ŋusẽ dziɖuɖua be wòabia ɖokuisinɔnɔ le Britain Dukɔa me. Le September 18, 1956 dzi la, Britaintɔwo ɖo March 6, 1957—si nye ƒe 1844 ƒe Bond ƒe ƒe 113 lia—be wòanye ŋkeke si dzi Gold Coast, Ashanti, Dziehenutowo, kple Britaintɔwo ƒe Togoland ƒo ƒu azu dukɔ si wɔ ɖeka, si le eɖokui si dukɔ si le Britain Dukɔwo ƒe Habɔbɔ me, le ŋkɔ Ghana te. Kwame Nkrumah yi edzi nye dukplɔlagã, eye Fianyɔnu Elizabeth II gakpɔtɔ nye dukɔa ƒe tatɔ, eye Ghana ƒe Dukplɔlagã, Aƒetɔ Charles Noble Arden-Clarke nɔ eteƒe. Ghana gakpɔtɔ nye dukplɔsedziɖuɖu kple sewɔtakpekpe ƒe demokrasi vaseɖe ƒe 1960 me, esime, le dukɔa ƒe akɔdada megbe la, woɖe gbeƒãe be Ghana nye dukɔ.[62]

Ŋgɔyiyi ƒe Ðoɖo Evelia si wowɔ le ƒe 1959–1964 me la zɔ ɖe Soviettɔwo ƒe kpɔɖeŋu dzi eye wòtrɔ susu tso dziɖuɖu ƒe dɔwɔnawo keke ɖe enu dzi yi dɔwɔwɔ dzi ɖe edzi le ganyawo ƒe akpa veviwo me. Nkrumah xɔe se be dutanyigbadziɖuɖu gblẽ nu le amewo ƒe amenyenye ŋu, si zi hoʋiʋli, ame ɖekaɖekawo ƒe nukpɔsusu, kple kapitalist-dziɖuɖu ƒe susu si wòle be woaɖe ɖa. Kokoo ƒe asi te ɖiɖi le xexeame katã, woɖe gazazã dzi kpɔtɔ, eye wobia tso dɔwɔlawo si be woatsɔ nu geɖe asa vɔe be woatsɔ aɖu dutanyigba yeyewo dzi. Nkrumah ɖe dɔwɔlawo ƒe habɔbɔwo ƒe ɖokuisinɔnɔ dzi kpɔtɔ ŋutɔ, eye ne dɔmedzoedoname dzɔ la, ezã Preventive Detention Act tsɔ tsia wo nu.[63]

Le aƒeme gome la, Nkrumah xɔe se be dɔwɔƒewo kple kadodowo ƒe egbegbe tɔtrɔ kabakaba le vevie eye woate ŋu awɔe ne dɔwɔlawo katã nye Afrikatɔwo eye wode suku. Sekɛndrisukuwo keke ɖe enu va zu nu vevitɔ le ƒe 1959–1964 me, tsɔ kpe ɖe dɔwɔɖoɖowo kple suku kɔkɔwo kekeɖenudɔwo ŋu.

Vevietɔ wu la, Nkrumah xɔe se be woate ŋu aɖo dukɔa me taɖodzinu sia gbɔ kabakaba ne menye dunyahela siwo tsi tre ɖe wo nɔewo ŋu—ame ŋkuta siwo le tsitretsiɖeŋuhawo me kple amegã siwo nɔ anyi tso blema ke—siwo ate ŋu awɔ ɖeka kple Ɣetoɖoƒetɔwo ƒe fiaɖuƒedziɖulawo xe mɔ nɛ o. Nyateƒee, futɔwo ate ŋu anɔ afi sia afi, eye womeɖea mɔ ɖe masɔmasɔwo ŋu o. Nkrumah ƒe dziɖuɖua de Deportation Act of 1957, Detention Acts of 1958, 1959, kple 1962, eye wòzã sewɔtakpekpe ƒe ŋɔdzidoname ɖe CPP ƒe tsitretsiɖeŋulawo ŋu. Woda asi ɖe eƒe akpa dzi be eya koe nye dunyahehabɔbɔ ɖeka kolia le dukɔa me, woɖo Sɔhɛ Mɔɖelawo ƒe Habɔbɔ hena dukɔa ƒe sɔhɛwo ƒe susuŋutinunya hehe, eye wona akpahaa kpɔ ŋusẽ ɖe dukɔmeviwo ƒe dɔwɔƒewo dzi. Ga si dziɖuɖua zã ɖe mɔdodowo tutu ŋu, hehenana ame tsitsiwo kple ɖeviwo le agbɔsɔsɔ gã me, kple lãmesẽnyawo gbɔ kpɔkpɔ, kpakple Akosombo Tɔdzisasrãa tutu, katã nɔ vevie nenye be Ghana awɔ akpa vevi aɖe le Afrika ƒe ablɔɖe tso dutanyigbadziɖuɖu kple dutanyigba yeye ƒe dziɖuɖu te me.[64]

Pan-Africanisttɔwo ƒe taɖodzinue

[trɔ asi le eŋu | trɔ asi le etsoƒe ŋu]

Pan-Africanist habɔbɔa ƒe taɖodzinue nye be ɖekawɔwɔ nanɔ amesiwo tso Afrika dome eye wodi be yewoana dɔwɔla siwo, wogblɔ be kapitalist-dɔwɔƒewo le wo zãm le Afrika la ƒe agbenɔnɔ nanyo ɖe edzi. Le Nkrumah ƒe nya nu la, eƒe dziɖuɖua, abe Afrika Ameyibɔ dukɔ gbãtɔ si xɔ ɖokuisinɔnɔ ene la, wɔ akpa vevi aɖe le avuwɔwɔ kple kapitalisttɔwo ƒe didiwo le anyigbagã la dzi me. Abe alesi wògblɔe xɔŋkɔe ene la, "gɔmesese aɖeke manɔ Ghana ƒe ɖokuisinɔnɔ ŋu o negbe ɖe woblae ɖe Afrika ƒe ablɔɖe blibo ŋu hafi."[65]

Le anyigbagã bliboa dzi la, Nkrumah di be yeawɔ ɖeka kple Afrika ale be yeate ŋu akpɔ yeƒe ganyawo ta le xexeame katã eye wòatsi tre sesĩe ɖe dunyahehe ƒe nyaƒoɖeamenu siwo tso Ɣedzeƒe kple Ɣetoɖoƒe siaa gbɔ le Aʋa Vɔ̃ɖi la me. Eƒe ŋutega na Afrika nye Pan-Africanist drɔ̃e si ŋu woƒo nu tsoe le Manchester takpekpea me la dzi yiyi. Afɔɖeɖe gbãtɔ si wòwɔ le eƒe aɖaŋua mee nye be yeado alɔ dunyahehabɔbɔ siwo wɔ tɔtrɔ kpata le Afrika katã. CIA xɔe se be Nkrumah ƒe dziɖuɖua na ga kple hehe aʋawɔla siwo da megbe na hadomenuwɔnawo le Ghana, kple kpekpeɖeŋu tso China Kɔmiunist dziɖuɖua gbɔ le ƒe 1964 megbe. Le dunyahehe gome la, Nkrumah xɔe se be ɖekawɔwɔ si le Ghana, Guinea, kple Mali dome aʋã amewo eye wòana woaɖo United States of Africa. Esi amewo ɖe ɖeklemi Nkrumah be melé ŋku ɖe Ghana ŋu nyuie o alo be egblẽ dukɔa ƒe nunɔamesiwo ɖe dukɔwo dome ɖoɖowo ŋu la, etrɔ nyaʋiʋlia, hetsɔ nya ɖe eƒe tsitretsiɖeŋulawo ŋu be womekpɔa nu kpuie o.[66]

Adzɔxexe ƒe Tsitretsiɖeŋunyawo

[trɔ asi le eŋu | trɔ asi le etsoƒe ŋu]

Gakuxi gã si Nkrumah ƒe ŋgɔyiyi ƒe ɖoɖowo kple eƒe Pan-African ɖoɖowo he vɛ la he tsitretsiɖeŋutsoƒe yeyewo vɛ. Esi wotsɔ dukɔa ƒe gazazã dzi ɖeɖe kpɔtɔ ƒe gazazã gbãtɔ ɖo ŋkume le July 1961 me la, Ghana dɔwɔlawo kple agbledelawo va nya ga si Nkrumah ƒe ɖoɖowo gblẽ na wo eye woɖe ɖeklemi wo. Woƒe nuwɔna ɖo kpɔɖeŋu na tsitretsiɖeŋu siwo woawɔ le adzɔxexe kple viɖe siwo anye Ghana dunyahehe me kuxiwo ƒe akpa gã aɖe le ƒe blaetɔ̃ siwo gbɔna me.

CPP me tɔ dzrowo kple tsitretsiɖeŋuha si nye United Party (UP) teƒenɔlawo le Dukɔa ƒe Sewɔtakpekpea me ɖe ɖeklemi dziɖuɖua ƒe didi be woaxe adzɔ gãwo, vevietɔ ɖoɖo si zi amewo dzi be woadzra ga ɖo la vevie. Dua me dɔwɔlawo dze tsitretsiɖeŋu ƒe dɔmedzoedoname gɔme, si nye nu sesẽtɔ kekeake le dutoƒo ɣlidodo geɖe siwo tsi tre ɖe dziɖuɖua ƒe afɔɖeɖewo ŋu le ƒe 1961. Nkrumah ƒe didi le dutoƒo be woadzudzɔ nufitifitiwɔwɔ le dziɖuɖua kple akpahaa me na amewo ƒe kakaɖeamedzi ɖe dukɔa ƒe dziɖuɖua ŋu dzi ɖe kpɔtɔ wu. Ga si dziɖuɖua ƒe asitsatsa ƒe habɔbɔ xena na kokoo agbledelawo ƒe ɖiɖi na dukɔmeviwo ƒe akpa aɖe si tsi tre ɖe Nkrumah ŋu vevie ɣesiaɣi la do dziku.[67]

Tsitretsitsi ɖe Nkrumah ŋu ƒe dzidziɖedzi

[trɔ asi le eŋu | trɔ asi le etsoƒe ŋu]

Nkrumah ƒe dunyahehe ƒe ŋusẽ dzi ɖuɖu bliboe kpɔ ŋusẽ ɖe kplɔla sue bubuwo ɖe aga, si na wo dometɔ ɖesiaɖe zu kuxi ŋutɔŋutɔ alo esi wosusu be eyae. Esi wogbã tsitretsiɖeŋuhawo vɔ la, CPP ŋutɔ ƒe ha me koe kuxiwo do tso. Tawia Adamafio, si nye dunyahela aɖe si tso Accra hã nɔ emetɔwo dome. Nkrumah tsɔe ɖo CPP ƒe agbalẽŋlɔlagã ɣeyiɣi kpui aɖe. Emegbe la, woɖo Adamafio dukɔa ƒe dziɖuɖumegã si kpɔa dukplɔla ƒe nyawo gbɔ, si nye ɖoƒe vevitɔ kekeake le dukplɔla ƒe dɔwɔlawo dome le Flagstaff Aƒea me, si vivivi va zu nyametsotsowɔwɔwo katã ƒe teƒe kple dɔdzikpɔkpɔdɔ ŋutɔŋutɔ ƒe akpa gãtɔ na CPP kple dziɖuɖua siaa. Kplɔla bubu si dze abe ɖe wòdo alɔe ene lae nye John Tettegah, si nye Dɔwɔlawo ƒe Habɔbɔ ƒe Sewɔtakpekpe ƒe tatɔ. Gake ŋusẽ aɖeke meɖee fia be ŋusẽ aɖeke mele wo dometɔ aɖeke si wu nusi dukplɔla la na wo o.[68]

Gake kaka ƒe 1961 naɖo la, CPP ƒe ŋgɔnɔla siwo nye ɖekakpui kple zazɛ̃nyahelawo, siwo Adamafio nɔ ŋgɔ na la va kpɔ ŋusẽ ɖe CPP ƒe ŋgɔnɔla gbãtɔwo abe Gbedemah ene dzi. Esi woda bɔmb ɖe Nkrumah ƒe agbe dzi le August 1962 me vɔ la, wode Adamafio, Ako Adjei (dutanyawo gbɔ kpɔla ɣemaɣi), kple Cofie Crabbe (siwo katã nye CPP me tɔwo) gaxɔ me le Mɔxexeɖedɔléle Nu ƒe Se nu. Woɖe Ghanatɔwo ƒe Kpovitɔwo ƒe Dɔdzikpɔla gbãtɔ, E. R. T. Madjitey, si tso Asite le Manya-Krobo hã le eƒe ɖoƒea. CPP nyadzɔdzɔgbalẽwo tso wo nu be wokpɔ gome le amewuwu ƒe agbagbadzedzea me, eye nyateƒe si wònye be wo katã wotiae be yewoado ʋu siwo le megbe ʋĩ le dukplɔla la tɔ me esime woda bɔmb la koe nye kpeɖodzi.[69]

Wodrɔ̃ ʋɔnu amesiwo ŋu wotsɔ nya ɖo la le ʋɔnudrɔ̃la etɔ̃ ƒe ʋɔnudrɔ̃ƒe si kpɔa dukɔa ƒe dedienɔnɔ ta, si ʋɔnudrɔ̃lagã, Aƒetɔ Arku Korsah, nɔ ŋgɔ na la ŋkume. Esi ʋɔnudrɔ̃ƒea kpɔe be amesi ŋu wotsɔ nya ɖo la meɖi fɔ o la, Nkrumah zã eƒe ŋusẽ si le dukplɔsea me tsɔ ɖe Korsah le dɔ me. Emegbe Nkrumah xɔ akɔdada tso sewɔtakpekpea gbɔ si ɖe mɔ be woagadrɔ̃ ʋɔnu Adamafio kple eƒe hadɔwɔlawo ake. Ʋɔnudrɔ̃ƒe yeye aɖe si me adaŋudeha aɖe si Nkrumah tia le la bu fɔ amesiwo katã ŋu wotsɔ nya ɖo eye wotso kufia na wo. Ke hã, wotrɔ kufiatsotso siawo wozu ƒe blaeve gaxɔmenɔnɔ.[70]

Nufitifitiwɔwɔ gblẽ nu le ame ŋu ŋutɔ. Eɖe ga le ganya si le dɔ dzi la me eye wòtsɔe de dunyahehawo si me, kple Nkrumah ƒe xɔlɔ̃wo kple ƒome, si va zu mɔxenu na ganyawo ƒe ŋgɔyiyi emegbe. Dukɔa ƒe dɔwɔƒe yeye siwo woɖo be woatsɔ ade dzidziɖedzi ƒe dzi ƒo la va zu dɔwɔnu siwo wozãna na ameŋkumenuwɔwɔ kple ganyawo ƒe nufitifitiwɔwɔ; dziɖuɖudɔwɔlawo dzi woƒe fetu ɖe edzi zi gbɔ zi eve eye dunyahelawo ƒle amesiwo kpena ɖe wo ŋu. Le dunyahehe me la, nutsotsowo kple nufitifitiwɔwɔ ƒe nya ŋutɔŋutɔ siwo dzɔ le dziɖuɖuha la me kple le Nkrumah ŋutɔ ƒe ganyawo me gblẽ eƒe dziɖuɖua ƒe sedziwɔwɔ ŋutɔŋutɔ me eye wòɖe susu ƒe ɖokuitsɔtsɔna si hiã be woalé dukɔa ƒe nyonyo me ɖe asi le Ghanatɔwo ƒe hadomedziɖuɖu te dzi kpɔtɔ ŋutɔ.[71]

Dunyaheŋutinunyala Herbert H. Werlin srɔ̃ nu tso ganyawo ƒe afɔku si le dzidzim ɖe edzi ŋu:

"Nkrumah dzo le Ghana kple fexexe ƒe dadasɔ ƒe kuxi sesẽ aɖe. Tso duta ga gbogbo aɖe si wodzra ɖo ɖi si wu dɔlar miliɔn 500 le ɖokuisinɔnɔ ƒe ɣeyiɣia me dzi la, Ghana, kaka ƒe 1966 naɖo la, dukɔa ƒe gotafe si wu dɔlar miliɔn 800 nɔ esi.....duta ga aɖeke menɔ anyi si woatsɔ aƒle akpa siwo woatsɔ awɔ dɔe kple nusiwo woatsɔ awɔ dɔe siwo hiã na ganyawo o. Togbɔ be ga ƒe asixɔxɔ nɔ dzidzim ɖe edzi, si na be ganyawo va do price-level to rise by 30 per cent in 1964–65, unemployment was also serious....Togbɔ be le ƒe 1955 kple 1962 dome la, Ghana ƒe Gross National Product (GNP) dzi ɖe edzi le mamã dedie nu ƒe sia ƒe ƒe agbɔsɔsɔ si ade 5 le alafa me kloe la, dzidziɖedzi aɖeke kura menɔ anyi kura le ƒe 1965 me o....Esi wònye be Ghana ƒe ƒe sia ƒe ƒe amewo ƒe dzidziɖedzi ƒe agbɔsɔsɔme si wobu be enye 2.6 le alafa me, edze ƒã be eƒe ganyawo nɔ megbe yim.[72]

Le ƒe 1964 ƒe gɔmedzedze, be woaxe mɔ ɖe nyaʋiʋli siwo ava ʋɔnudrɔ̃ƒewo gbɔ le etsɔme kple le dukɔa ƒe dutoƒonuƒo bubu megbe la, Nkrumah kpɔ dukplɔse me tɔtrɔ si ɖe mɔ nɛ be wòaɖe ʋɔnudrɔ̃la ɖesiaɖe le dɔ me. Ghana va zu dunyaheha ɖeka ƒe dukɔ le se nu, eye se aɖe si le sewɔtakpekpea me kpɔ egbɔ be ame ɖeka koe anɔ dukplɔla ƒe ɖoƒea. Esi wònye be wode se ɖe dunyaheha bubuwo nu xoxo ta la, ame aɖeke si mele CPP me o la meva tsɔ nya ɖe akpahaa ƒe ŋkɔ tiatia ŋu le dutoƒotiatia si woɖe gbeƒãe na June 1965. Mede ƒe ɖeka o esi Dukɔa ƒe Ablɔɖehabɔbɔ (NLC) me tɔwo mu CPP dziɖuɖua le asrafowo ƒe amedzidzedze me le February 24, 1966. Ɣemaɣi la, Nkrumah nye dukplɔla le China. Edi sitsoƒe le Guinea, afisi wònɔ vaseɖe esime wòku le ƒe 1972 me.[73]

Asrafowo ƒe amedzidzedze si dzɔ le ƒe 1966 me ƒe ŋgɔnɔlawo ɖo kpe woƒe dziɖuɖua xɔxɔ dzi esi wogblɔ be CPP dziɖuɖua nye ŋlɔmiwɔwɔ kple nufitifitiwɔwɔ, be Nkrumah ƒe gomekpɔkpɔ le Afrika dunyahehe me nye adãwɔwɔ akpa, eye be demokrasi nuwɔna aɖeke mele dukɔa me o. Wogblɔ be asrafowo ƒe amedzidzedze le ƒe 1966 me nye dukɔmevinyenye ƒe nuwɔna elabena ena ablɔɖe dukɔa tso Nkrumah ƒe ŋutasẽdziɖuɖu me. Dzesi kple habɔbɔ siwo katã do ƒome kple Nkrumah bu kaba, abe Sɔhɛ Mɔɖelawo ene. Togbɔ be dunyahehe me tɔtrɔ gã siwo Kwame Nkrumah mumu he vɛ hã la, kuxi geɖewo gakpɔtɔ li, siwo dometɔ aɖewoe nye mama le towo kple nuto vovovowo dome, dukɔa ƒe ganyawo ƒe agbawo, kple seselelãme vovovowo le titinadziɖuɖu si sesẽ akpa ƒe tɔtrɔgbɔ ŋu. Ameawo ƒe akpa ɖedzesi aɖe va ka ɖe edzi be dziɖuɖu si wɔa dɔ nyuie, si ɖia anukware, mate ŋu adzɔ kple dunyaheha siwo le ho ʋlim o. Ghanatɔ geɖe gakpɔtɔ tsɔ wo ɖokui na be yewoanye kplɔla siwo menye dunyahehe o na dukɔa, ne efia asrafowo ƒe dziɖuɖu gɔ̃ hã. Kuxi siwo dze ŋgɔ Busia dziɖuɖua, si nye dukɔa ƒe dziɖuɖu gbãtɔ si woti le Nkrumah ƒe anyidzedze megbe la ɖe kuxi sesẽ siwo Ghana ayi edzi ado goe la fia. Wogblɔ be U.S. Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) ye da asi ɖe amedzidzedzea dzi.[74]

Dukɔa ƒe Ablɔɖehabɔbɔ (NLC), si me asrafomegã ene kple kpovitɔ ene le la xɔ dziɖuɖu ƒe ŋusẽ. Eɖo dziɖuɖudɔwɔlawo ƒe dziɖuɖumegãwo ƒe ha eye wòdo ŋugbe be yeagbugbɔ demokrasidziɖuɖu aɖo anyi kaba ale si yeate ŋui. Nuwɔna siawo na woɖo teƒenɔlawo ƒe ha aɖe be wòaŋlɔ dukplɔse na Ghana Dukɔ Evelia. Woɖe mɔ na dunyahehawo be woawɔ dɔ tso ƒe 1968 ƒe nuwuwu. PP ɖu dzi le amehawo ƒe akɔdada ƒe alafa memama 59 me eye wòxɔ zikpui 74 le alafa me le Dukɔa ƒe Sewɔtakpekpea me.

Gbedemah, amesi eteƒe medidi o Ʋɔnudrɔ̃ƒe Kɔkɔtɔ ƒe nyametsotso xe mɔ na eƒe Dukɔa ƒe Sewɔtakpekpe ƒe zikpui la, xɔ dzudzɔ le dunyahehe me, si wɔe be NAL megakpɔ kplɔla sesẽ aɖeke o. Le October 1970 me la, NAL xɔ dunyaheha sue etɔ̃ bubuwo me tɔwo ɖe sewɔtakpekpea me be woaɖo Dzɔdzɔenyenye ƒe Habɔbɔ (JP) le Joseph Appiah ƒe kpɔkplɔ te. Woƒe ŋusẽ ƒo ƒu wɔ nusi nye dzigbe ƒuƒoƒo si koŋ Evetɔwo ƒe akpa gãtɔ kple ƒutaduwo me nɔlawo do alɔe vevie.[75]

PP ƒe ŋgɔnɔla Busia va zu dukplɔlagã le September 1970. Le ɣeyiɣi kpui aɖe si nɔ dukplɔla ƒe dɔdzikpɔha si me ame etɔ̃ nɔ hena ɣeyiɣi aɖe megbe la, tiatiawɔha la tiae be wòanye dukplɔla Ʋɔnudrɔ̃lagã Edward Akufo-Addo, si nye dukɔmevinyenye ƒe dunyahela xɔŋkɔwo dometɔ ɖeka tso UGCC ƒe ɣeyiɣia me eye wònye ʋɔnudrɔ̃la siwo Nkrumah ɖe le dɔ me le ƒe 1964 me la dometɔ ɖeka.[76]

Afɔ eve siwo Busia dziɖuɖua ɖe gbãe nye ame gbogbo aɖewo siwo menye dukɔmeviwo o nyanyã le dukɔa me kple afɔɖeɖe si do ƒome kplii be woatsɔ axe mɔ ɖe dutatɔwo ƒe gomekpɔkpɔ le asitsaha suewo me nu. Nuwɔna siawo ƒe taɖodzinue nye be woaɖe dɔmakpɔwɔe si dukɔa ƒe ganyawo ƒe nɔnɔme si meli ke o hena vɛ la dzi akpɔtɔ. Amewo lɔ̃a ɖoɖoawo elabena wozi dutatɔwo, vevietɔ Lebanontɔwo, Asiatɔwo, kple Nigeriatɔwo dzi, amesiwo wobu be woɖua asitsatsa dzi madzemadzee wògblẽa nu le Ghanatɔwo ŋu. Gake amewo melɔ̃a Busia ƒe ʋuʋu bubu geɖe o. Wotsɔ nya ɖe Busia ƒe nyametsotso be yeato gadodo ƒe ɖoɖo aɖe vɛ na yunivɛsiti sukuvi siwo xɔ hehe femaxee tsã la ŋu elabena wobui be enye klass ƒe ɖoɖo aɖe toto vɛ le dukɔa ƒe suku kɔkɔtɔwo me. Eteƒekpɔla aɖewo gɔ̃ hã bu Busia ƒe asixɔxɔ dzi ɖeɖe kpɔtɔ le dukɔa ƒe ga ŋu kple eƒe dzidedeƒo na duta gadede ganyawo ƒe dɔwɔƒewo me be wonye nukpɔsusu siwo me woɖea mɔ ɖe nu ŋu le siwo ate ŋu agblẽ Ghana ƒe ɖokuisinɔnɔ me.

PP si le dzi ɖum la te gbe ɖe alesi wòhiã be woawɔ ŋgɔyiyi le kɔƒenutowo me dzi, be woaɖe amewo ƒe ʋuʋu yi dugãwo me dzi akpɔtɔ eye woaɖɔ nutome ƒe masɔmasɔwo ɖo le ŋgɔyiyi ƒe ɖoɖowo me siaa. JP kple PP me tɔ siwo le dzidzim ɖe edzi la da asi ɖe edzi be woatɔ te fexexe ɖe duta fe aɖewo ta tso Nkrumah ƒe ɣeyiɣia me. Nɔnɔme sia va xɔ ŋkɔ wu esi fexexe va nɔ sesẽm ɖe edzi. Akpa evea siaa da asi ɖe edzi be woaɖo Ɣetoɖoƒe Afrika ganyawo ƒe habɔbɔ alo ganyawo ƒe ɖekawɔwɔ kple Ɣetoɖoƒe Afrika dukɔ siwo te ɖe wo ŋu.

Togbɔ be ame geɖe da asi ɖe edzi le eƒe gɔmedzedze eye duta kadodo sesẽwo nɔ wo dome hã la, asrafowo ƒe amedzidzedze ɖe Busia dziɖuɖua ŋu le ɣleti blaeve vɔ adre me. Susu vevitɔwoe nye dukɔa ƒe ganyawo ƒe sesẽ si yi edzi, esiwo tso duta fe gbogbo siwo Nkrumah do kple esiwo do tso ememe kuxiwo gbɔ siaa. PP dziɖuɖua nyi dɔlar miliɔn 580 ƒe dome le ɣeyiɣi didi kple ɣeyiɣi didi ƒe fewo me, si nye ga home si sɔ kple Dukɔa ƒe Gakpɔkpɔ Blibo (GDP) ƒe alafa memama 25. Kaka ƒe 1971 naɖo la, dɔlar miliɔn 580 la gadzi ɖe edzi dɔlar miliɔn 72 le deme si woƒo ƒu me kple dɔlar miliɔn 296 le asitsatsa ƒe gadodo ɣeyiɣi kpui aɖe me. Le dukɔa me la, fe si wonyi le dukɔa me si lolo wu gɔ̃ hã na ga ƒe asixɔxɔ dzi ɖe edzi.

Ghana ƒe ganyawo gakpɔtɔ nɔ te ɖe kokoo ƒe agbledede kple asitsatsa si sesẽna zi geɖe dzi vevie. Kokoo ƒe asi meli ke ɣesiaɣi o, gake zi geɖe la, agblemenuku sia si wotsɔ ɖoa dutae naa ga si dukɔa kpɔna tso duta ƒe afã lɔƒo. Gake tso ƒe 1960-awo me la, nu geɖe ƒo ƒu ɖo seɖoƒe na gakpɔkpɔ sia vevie. Nu siawo dometɔ aɖewoe nye duta hoʋiʋli (vevietɔ tso Côte d’Ivoire si te ɖe eŋu), asitsatsa faa ƒe ŋusẽwo gɔmesese ƒe anyimanɔmanɔ (dziɖuɖua le asi siwo woxena na agbledelawo ɖoɖo me), nutsotso be womewɔa dɔ nyuie le Kokoo ƒe Asitsahabɔbɔa me o, kple nukuwo tsɔtsɔ yi Côte d’Ivoire le adzame. Esia wɔe be ga si Ghana kpɔna tso kokoo siwo wodɔna ɖa me la yi edzi nɔ ɖiɖim ŋutɔ.

Afɔɖeɖe siwo Busia dziɖuɖua de be woaɖe gazazã dzi akpɔtɔ, togbɔ be susu le eme le ɣeyiɣi didi aɖe megbe hã la, ena agbledela siwo kpɔ ŋusẽ ɖe amewo dzi siwo do alɔ PP tsã la ɖa. Afɔɖeɖe siawo nye agbagba siwo Busia dze be yeatrɔ asi le ganyawo ƒe ɖoɖowo ŋu be yeatsɔ dukɔa ade ganyawo ƒe nɔnɔme si li ke wu me la ƒe akpa aɖe. Dukɔwo Dome Ganyawo Gbɔkpɔha (IMF) ye kafu gazazã dzi ɖeɖe kpɔtɔ ƒe ɖoɖowo. Afɔɖeɖe siwo wowɔ be woagbugbɔ ga axɔ la gblẽ nu le titinatɔwo kple dɔwɔla siwo xɔa fetu hã ŋu vevie, eye wo ame evea siaa dze ŋgɔ fetu dzi ɖeɖe kpɔtɔ, adzɔxexe dzi ɖeɖe kpɔtɔ, ga ƒe asixɔxɔ dzi ɖeɖe kpɔtɔ, kple nusiwo wotsɔ tso duta ƒe asi si dzi ɖe edzi. Afɔɖeɖe siawo na Dɔwɔlawo ƒe Habɔbɔ ƒe Sewɔtakpekpea tsi tre ɖe eŋu. Le esia ta la, dziɖuɖua dɔ asrafowo ɖa be woaxɔ dɔwɔlawo ƒe habɔbɔ ƒe dɔwɔƒegã eye woaxe mɔ ɖe dɔmedzoedoname ƒe afɔɖeɖewo nu—si nye nɔnɔme si ame aɖewo kpɔ be etsi tre ɖe dziɖuɖua ƒe nya si wògblɔ be yele dɔ wɔm le demokrasimɔ nu ŋu.

Abe alesi amedzidzedze si tsi tre ɖe Busia ŋu ƒe ŋgɔnɔla ɖe gbeƒãe le January 13, 1972 dzi ene la, akɔfafa si asrafowo kpɔ le Nkrumah ƒe dziɖuɣi gɔ̃ hã meganɔ anyi o. Esi Busia dziɖuɖua nya be gazazã ɖe mɔ gbegblẽ nu do dziku na asrafomegãwo ta la, edze asrafowo ƒe aʋawɔhawo ƒe ŋgɔnɔlawo tɔtrɔ gɔme. Gake esiae nye gbe mamlɛtɔ. Aʋafiagã Ignatius Kutu Acheampong, si nye Asrafoha Gbãtɔ si ƒo xlã Accra ƒe tatɔ hena ɣeyiɣi aɖe la, xɔ ŋgɔ na amedzidzedze ʋumadomadoe si wu Dukɔ Evelia nu.[77]

  1. ↑ McLaughlin & Owusu-Ansah (1994), "The Pre-Colonial Period".
  2. ↑ Levtzion, Nehemia (1973). Ancient Ghana and Mali. New York: Methuen & Co Ltd. p. 3. ISBN 0841904316.
  3. ↑ McLaughlin & Owusu-Ansah (1994), "The Pre-Colonial Period".
  4. ↑ McLaughlin & Owusu-Ansah (1994), "The Pre-Colonial Period".
  5. ↑ Malwal, Bona (2015), "Northern Sudan and South Sudan: Denying the South Autonomy Led to Independence, 1947–2011", Sudan and South Sudan, London: Palgrave Macmillan UK, pp. 31–65, doi:10.1057/9781137437143_3, ISBN 978-1-349-49376-0
  6. ↑ McLaughlin & Owusu-Ansah (1994), "The Pre-Colonial Period".
  7. ↑ McLaughlin & Owusu-Ansah (1994), "The Pre-Colonial Period".
  8. ↑ "Chapter 3. Using Muslims to Think With: Narratives of Islamic Rulers", Envisioning Islam, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, pp. 102–141, 2015, doi:10.9783/9780812291445-004, ISBN 978-0-8122-9144-5
  9. ↑ Zahan, Dominique (2018), "The Mossi Kingdoms", West African Kingdoms in the Nineteenth Century, Routledge, pp. 152–178, doi:10.4324/9780429491641-6, ISBN 978-0-429-49164-1, S2CID 216884374
  10. ↑ Robin Hallett, Africa to 1875 (University of Michigan Press: Ann Arbor, 1970) p. 69.
  11. ↑ "Prempeh, Ii, Otumfuo Sir Osei Agyeman, (1892–1970), nephew to late Nana Agyeman Prempeh I; Kumasihene and direct descendant of late King Osei Tutu, the Founder of Ashanti Empire; Hon. Zone Organiser (with rank of Hon. Lt-Col) in Home Guard, 1942", Who Was Who, Oxford University Press, 1 December 2007, doi:10.1093/ww/9780199540884.013.u54595
  12. ↑ McLaughlin & Owusu-Ansah (1994), "The Pre-Colonial Period".
  13. ↑ "War mobilization and state formation in the northern Union and southern Confederacy", Yankee Leviathan, Cambridge University Press, pp. 94–237, 25 January 1991, doi:10.1017/cbo9780511527999.004, ISBN 978-0-521-39136-8
  14. ↑ McLaughlin & Owusu-Ansah (1994), "The Pre-Colonial Period".
  15. ↑ "War mobilization and state formation in the northern Union and southern Confederacy", Yankee Leviathan, Cambridge University Press, pp. 94–237, 25 January 1991, doi:10.1017/cbo9780511527999.004, ISBN 978-0-521-39136-8
  16. ↑ McLaughlin & Owusu-Ansah (1994), "The Pre-Colonial Period".
  17. ↑ Chipp, Thomas Ford (1922). Forest officers' handbook of the Gold Coast, Ashanti and the Northern Territories. London [etc.]: Waterlow & sons limited. doi:10.5962/bhl.title.45233.
  18. ↑ Essien, Kwame (2016). "House of Slaves and "Door of No Return": Gold Coast/Ghana Slave Forts, Castles & Dungeons and the Atlantic Slave Trade by Edmund Abaka". Ghana Studies. 19 (1): 203–205. doi:10.1353/ghs.2016.0010. ISSN 2333-7168. S2CID 164992921.
  19. ↑ "Elmina Castle: From Slavery to Tourism". Elmina, 'The Little Europe': European Impact and Cultural Resilience. Sub-Saharan Publishers. 16 May 2018. pp. 14–27. doi:10.2307/j.ctvh8r1bt.8. ISBN 978-9988-8829-7-6.
  20. ↑ Noll, Douglas E. (April 2011). Elusive peace : how modern diplomatic strategies could better resolve world conflicts. Prometheus Books. ISBN 978-1-61614-418-0. OCLC 1162426943.
  21. ↑ McLaughlin & Owusu-Ansah (1994), "Early European Contact and the Slave Trade".
  22. ↑ McLaughlin & Owusu-Ansah (1994), "Early European Contact and the Slave Trade".
  23. ↑ McLaughlin & Owusu-Ansah (1994), "Early European Contact and the Slave Trade".
  24. ↑ McLaughlin & Owusu-Ansah (1994), "Early European Contact and the Slave Trade".
  25. ↑ Lambert, David (1 September 2015), "Slave-trade suppression and the image of West Africa in nineteenth-century Britain", The suppression of the Atlantic slave trade, Manchester University Press, pp. 146–165, doi:10.7228/manchester/9780719085116.003.0007, ISBN 978-0-7190-8511-6
  26. ↑ Hopkins, Daniel (24 September 2018), "The Danish Guinea Coast Forts, Denmark's Abolition of the Atlantic Slave Trade, and African Colonial Policy, 1788–1850", Forts, Castles and Society in West Africa, BRILL, pp. 148–169, doi:10.1163/9789004380172_008, ISBN 978-90-04-38017-2, S2CID 201461088
  27. ↑ McLaughlin & Owusu-Ansah (1994), "Britain and the Gold Coast: the Early Years".
  28. ↑ Thompson, Larry (1995), "Ashanti soll geheilt werden", Der Fall Ashanti, Basel: Birkhäuser Basel, pp. 12–50, doi:10.1007/978-3-0348-6006-2_1, ISBN 978-3-0348-6007-9
  29. ↑ Catherine Koonar, "Using child labor to save souls: the Basel Mission in colonial Ghana, 1855–1900." ‘’Atlantic Studies’’ 11.4 (2014): 536–554.
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  31. ↑ Caldow, Richard W.G.; Perrow, Martin R.; Allen, David; Black, Julie; Bond, Ian; Harwood, Andrew; Liley, Durwyn; McCulloch, Neil; Murphy, Matthew (2020), "Verifying predictions of statistical models to define the size and shape of marine Special Protection Areas for foraging seabirds (terns)", Marine Protected Areas, Elsevier, pp. 543–572, doi:10.1016/b978-0-08-102698-4.00028-9, ISBN 978-0-08-102698-4 S2CID 210621308
  32. ↑ Kaberry, Phyllis (January 1952). "Western Africa: Part II. The Peoples of Sierra Leone Protectorate". International Affairs. 28 (1): 117. doi:10.2307/2605063. ISSN 1468-2346. JSTOR 2605063.
  33. ↑ Barnett, Randy E. (24 November 2013), "Constitutional Legitimacy without Consent: Protecting the Rights Retained by the People", Restoring the Lost Constitution, Princeton University Press, doi:10.23943/princeton/9780691159737.003.0003, ISBN 978-0-691-15973-7
  34. ↑ "The Ashanti Expedition". The Lancet. 147 (3784): 659–661. March 1896. doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(01)93362-8. ISSN 0140-6736.
  35. ↑ McLaughlin & Owusu-Ansah (1994), "The Colonial Era: British Rule of the Gold Coast".
  36. ↑ McLaughlin & Owusu-Ansah (1994), "The Colonial Era: British Rule of the Gold Coast".
  37. ↑ "Politics. Seleukid rule and the Hellenistic ruling class". Supplementum Epigraphicum Graecum. doi:10.1163/1874-6772_seg_a60_1990.
  38. ↑ "Because We Were Different", Too Soon to Tell, Hoboken, NJ, US: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., pp. 135–139, 2009, doi10.1002/9780470422403.ch28,: ISBN 978-0-470-42240-3
  39. ↑ McLaughlin & Owusu-Ansah (1994), "Colonial Administration".
  40. ↑ McLaughlin & Owusu-Ansah (1994), "Economic and Social Development".
  41. ↑ McLaughlin & Owusu-Ansah (1994), "Economic and Social Development".
  42. ↑ McLaughlin & Owusu-Ansah (1994), "Economic and Social Development".
  43. ↑ McLaughlin & Owusu-Ansah (1994), "Economic and Social Development".
  44. ↑ Hallett, Africa Since 1875: A Modern History, p. 341.
  45. ↑ Wongsrichanalai, Kanisorn (1 June 2016), "To Put Those Theories into Practice", Northern Character, Fordham University Press, pp. 86–111, doi:10.5422/fordham/9780823271818.003.0005, ISBN 978-0-8232-7181-8
  46. ↑ Hallett, Africa Since 1875: A Modern History, p. 353.
  47. ↑ McLaughlin & Owusu-Ansah (1994), "Early Manifestations of Nationalism".
  48. ↑ McLaughlin & Owusu-Ansah (1994), "Early Manifestations of Nationalism".
  49. ↑ McLaughlin & Owusu-Ansah (1994), "Early Manifestations of Nationalism".
  50. ↑ McLaughlin & Owusu-Ansah (1994), "Early Manifestations of Nationalism".
  51. ↑ McLaughlin & Owusu-Ansah (1994), "Early Manifestations of Nationalism".
  52. ↑ McLaughlin & Owusu-Ansah (1994), "Early Manifestations of Nationalism".
  53. ↑ McLaughlin & Owusu-Ansah (1994), "The Politics of the Independence Movements".
  54. ↑ McLaughlin & Owusu-Ansah (1994), "The Politics of the Independence Movements".
  55. ↑ McLaughlin & Owusu-Ansah (1994), "The Politics of the Independence Movements".
  56. ↑ McLaughlin & Owusu-Ansah (1994), "The Politics of the Independence Movements".
  57. ↑ McLaughlin & Owusu-Ansah (1994), "The Politics of the Independence Movements".
  58. ↑ McLaughlin & Owusu-Ansah (1994), "The Politics of the Independence Movements".
  59. ↑ "Sircar, Sir Nripendra Nath, (died 1945), Law Member of Executive Council of Governor-General of India, 1934–39; late Vice-President, Viceroy's Executive Council; Leader of Indian Legislative Assembly", Who Was Who, Oxford University Press, 1 December 2007, doi:10.1093/ww/9780199540884.013.u231810
  60. ↑ McLaughlin & Owusu-Ansah (1994), "Independent Ghana".
  61. ↑ Ahlman, Living with Nkrumahism (2017) ch. 3.
  62. ↑ McLaughlin & Owusu-Ansah (1994), "Independent Ghana".
  63. ↑ Ahlman, Living with Nkrumahism (2017) ch. 4.
  64. ↑ McLaughlin & Owusu-Ansah (1994), "Nkrumah, Ghana, and Africa".
  65. ↑ McLaughlin & Owusu-Ansah (1994), "Nkrumah, Ghana, and Africa".
  66. ↑ McLaughlin & Owusu-Ansah (1994), "Nkrumah, Ghana, and Africa".
  67. ↑ McLaughlin & Owusu-Ansah (1994), "Nkrumah, Ghana, and Africa".
  68. ↑ McLaughlin & Owusu-Ansah (1994), "The Growth of Opposition to Nkrumah".
  69. ↑ "COSATU condemns the assassination attempt against President Nicholas Maduro of Venezuela". Human Rights Documents Online. doi:10.1163/2210-7975_hrd-9885-20180017.
  70. ↑ "A Jury May Have Sentenced a Man to Death Because He Is Gay. It's Time for a Federal Court to Hear His Bias Claim". Human Rights Documents Online. doi:10.1163/2210-7975_hrd-9970-20180016.
  71. ↑ John Mukum Mbaku, "Corruption in Africa–Part 1." History Compass 7.5 (2009): 1269–1285.
  72. ↑ Herbert H. Werlin, "The consequences of corruption: The Ghanaian experience." Political Science Quarterly 88.1 (1973): 71–85 quoting pp 73–74 Online
  73. ↑ Albert Kwasi Ocran, A myth is broken: an account of the Ghana coup d'état of 24th February, 1966 (Longmans, 1968).
  74. ↑ Gaines, Kevin (2006). American Africans in Ghana, Black expatriates and the Civil Rights Era. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press.
  75. ↑ "Busia, Dr Kofi Abrefa, (11 July 1913–28 Aug. 1978), Prime Minister of Ghana, 1969–72", Who Was Who, Oxford University Press, 1 December 2007, doi:10.1093/ww/9780199540884.013.u152838
  76. ↑ Korthals Altes, Willem F. (1992). Information law towards the 21st century. Kluwer. ISBN 90-6544-627-3. OCLC 474488703.
  77. ↑ Ayelazuno, Jasper (8 December 2011), "Acheampong, Ignatius Kutu", African American Studies Center, Oxford University Press, doi:10.1093/acref/9780195301731.013.48140, ISBN 978-0-19-530173-1
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